영문법.hwp
UNIT 1. Present Progressive AND SIMPLE Present Tense
NOTES
1. Use the present progressive (also called the present continuous) to describe something that is happening right now.
ex) • Eva is talking to Karl.
• At the moment, she's wearing a robe.
• She's speaking English right now.
Use the simple present tense to describe what regularly happens, what usually happens, or what always happens.
ex) • Eva talks to Karl every day.
• She usually wears jeans.
• She speaks Spanish at home.
2. Use the present progressive to describe something that is happening in the extended present time (for example, nowadays, this month, these days, this year), even if it's not happening at the moment of speaking.
ex) • We're studying U.S. customs this month.
• Laura's studying in France this year.
• Are you studying hard these days?
Use the simple present tense with adverbs of frequency to express how often something happens.
ex) • In Spain, women always kiss on both cheeks.
• In France, women often kiss on both cheeks.
• We rarely stand very close to each other.
• In China, children never call adults by their first name.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Adverbs of frequency usually come before the main verb, but they go after the verb be.
ex) • They never come late.
• They are never late.
3. The present progressive is often used to show that the action is temporary.
ex) • I'm staying with friends, but I plan to leave soon.
4. REMEMBER ! Non-action verbs ( also called stative verbs) usually describe states or situations but not actions. Most non-action verbs are not usually used in the present progressive even when they describe a situation that exists at the moment of speaking.
ex) • Jane wants to go home right now. (Not: Jane is wanting to go home now)
Non-action verbs:
a. express emotions
(hate, like, love, want, feel)
USAGE NOTE: Unlike other verbs that express emotion, feel is often used in the progressive form.
ex) • I'm hungry. I want a hamburger. (Not: I`m wanting a hamburger)
• Ricki feels homesick.
• Ricki is feeling homesick.
b. describe mental states
(know, remember, believe, think [= believe], suppose, understand)
ex) • I know a lot of U.S. customs now.
• Ari remembers your number.
c. show possession
(have, own, possess, belong)
ex) • Cesar has two brothers.
• Some students own cars.
d. describe perceptions and senses
(hear, see, smell, taste, feel, notice, seem, look [= seem], be, appear, sound)
ex) • I hear the telephone.
• Dina seems tired.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Some verbs that describe perceptions and senses such as taste, smell, feel, and look can have both a non-action and an action meaning.
ex) • The soup tastes good. Try some.
• She's tasting the soup to see if it needs more salt.
5. Use the simple present tense to talk about situations that are not connected to time─for example, scientific facts and physical laws.
ex) • Stress causes high blood pressure.
• Water boils at 212℉= 100℃
p.s: You can also use the present progressive and the simple present to talk about the future.
UNIT ２. IMPERATIVE
NOTES
1. Use the imperative to:
a. give directions and instructions.
ex) • Get into the basic position.
• Turn left at the light.
b. give orders or commands.
ex) • Get up!
• Don't move!
c. make requests (use please in addition to the imperative).
ex) • Please read this article.
• Read this article, please.
d. give advice or make suggestions.
ex) • Always warm up first.
• Don't exercise when you're sick.
e. give warnings.
ex) • Be careful!
• Don't trip!
f. extend an informal invitation.
ex) • Work out with us tomorrow.
• Bring a friend.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Do not use the imperative in formal situations (for example, when inviting a boss or a teacher).
ex) • Would you like to join us, Mrs. Rivera? (Not: Join us, Mrs. Rivera.)
2. Note that the subject of an imperative statement is you. However, you is not said or written.
ex) • Stand up straight.
• Don't hold your breath.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! The imperative form is the same in both the singular and the plural.
ex) • John, point your toes. • John and Susan, point your toes.
UNIT 3. SIMPLE PAST TENSE
NOTES
1. Use the simple past tense to talk about actions, states, or situations that are now finished.
ex) • Basho lived in the seventeenth century.
• He was a poet.
• He wrote haiku.
• He didn't stay in one place.
• Where did he travel?
2. You can use the simple past tense with time expressions that refer to the past. Some examples of past time expressions are last week, by 1681, in the seventeenth century, 300 years ago.
ex) • By 1681, he had many students.
• He lived in the seventeenth century.
• He died more than 300 years ago.
3. REMEMBER: the simple past tense of regular verbs is formed by adding -d or -ed.
ex) • live → lived
• join → joined
• travel → traveled
• want → wanted
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! There are often spelling changes when you add -d or -ed to the verb.
ex) • study → studied
• hop → hopped
• prefer → preferred
4. Many common English verbs are irregular.
Their past tense is not formed by adding -d or -ed.
Base Form Simple Past
ex) • be → was / were
• build → built
• choose → chose
• have → had
• get → got
• go → went
UNIT 4. USED TO
NOTES
1. Use used to + base form of the verb to talk about past habits or past situations that no longer exist in the present.
ex) • Lea used to buy tight jeans.
(It was her habit to buy tight jeans, but now she doesn't buy tight jeans.)
• She used to hate loose jeans.
(She hated loose jeans, but now she doesn't hate loose jeans.)
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Used to always refers to the past. There is no present tense form.
ex) • In the past, Todd used to wear jeans.
(Not: Today Todd uses to wear jeans.)
2. We usually use used to in sentences that contrast the past and the present. We often emphasize this contrast by using time expressions such as now, no longer, and not anymore with the present tense.
ex) • Jeans only used to come in blue. Now you can buy them in any color.
• They used to live in Genoa, but they no longer live there.
• She used to wear a size 6, but she doesn't anymore.
3. BE CAREFUL ! Form the questions for all persons with did +use to
Form the negative with didn't +use to.
USAGE NOTE: Used to is more common in affirmative statements than in negative statements or questions.
ex) • Did you use to wear jeans? (Not: Did you used to wear jeans?)
• They didn't use to come in different colors.
(Not: They didn`t used to come in different colors.)
4. BE CAREFUL ! Do not confuse used to +base form of the verb with the following expressions:
ex) • I used to wear tight jeans.
(It was my past habit to wear tight jeans.)
-be used to (be accustomed to)
ex) • I'm used to wearing tight jeans.
(It is normal for me to wear tight jeans.)
OR
-get used to (get accustomed to)
ex) • I can't get used to wearing them loose.
(It still seems strange to me to wear them loose.)
UNIT 5. PAST PROGRESSIVE AND SIMPLE PAST TENSE
NOTES
1. Use the past progressive (also called the past continuous) to describe an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past. The action began before the specific time and may or may not continue after the specific time.
ex) • My wife and I were eating at 6:00.
• What were you doing at 7:00?
• They weren't skiing.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Non-action verbs are not usually used in the progressive.
ex) • I had a headache last night. (Not: I was having a headache last night.)
2. Use the past progressive with the simple past tense to talk about an action that was interrupted by another action. Use the simple past tense for the interrupting action.
ex) • I was taking a shower when the phone rang.
(The phone call came in the middle of what I was doing.)
Use when to introduce the simple-past-tense action OR use while to introduce the past-progressive action.
ex) • They were skiing when the storm started.
• While they were skiing, the storm started.
3. Use the past progressive with while (or when) to talk about two actions in progress at the same time in the past.
Use the past progressive in both clauses.
ex) • While I was watching TV, my wife was talking on the phone.
• My wife was talking on the phone while I was watching TV.
4. Notice that the time clause (the part of the sentence with or while) can come at the beginning or the end of the sentence. The meaning is the same.
Use a comma after the time clause when it comes at the beginning.
ex) • When you called, I was eating.
• I was eating when you called.
5. BE CAREFUL ! Sentences with both clause in the simple past tense have a very different meaning from sentences with one clause in the simple past tense and one clause in the past progressive.
ex) • When the bell rang, I ate dinner. (First the bell; then I ate dinner.)
• When the bell rang, I was eating dinner.
(First I was eating dinner, then the bell rang.)
6. Use the past progressive to focus on the duration of an action, not its completion.
ex) • Paul was reading a book last night.
(We don't know if he finished the book.)
Use the simple past tense to focus on the completion of an action.
ex) • Paul read a book last night.
(He probably finished it.)
UNIT 6. FUTURE
NOTES
1. There are several ways to talk about actions and states in the future. You can use:
-be going to
ex) • They're going to hold a press conference.
-present progressive
ex) • It's talking place next week.
-will
ex) • I think I'll go.
-simple present tense
ex) • It starts at 9:00 A.M. on Monday.
USAGE NOTE: Sometimes only one form of the future is appropriate, but in many cases more than one form is possible.
2. To make predictions or guesses about the future, use:
-be going to
ex) • People are going to travel differently.
OR
-will
ex) • People will travel differently.
Use be going to instead of will when there is something in the present that leads to the prediction.
ex) • Look at those cars! They're going to crash!
3. To talk about future intentions or plans, use:
-be going to
ex) • He's going to hold a conference next week.
OR
-will
ex) • He will hold a conference next week.
OR
-present progressive
ex) • He is holding a conference next week.
a. We often use will when we decide something at the moment of speaking.
Will can also be used for making a request.
ex) • A: The car show is opening next week.
B: I love new cars. I think I'll go.
b. We often use the present progressive when we talk about future plans that have already been arranged.
ex) • Jana and I are buying a new car next week. We've already chosen the model.
4. Use the simple present to talk about scheduled future events (such as timetables, programs, and schedules). Verbs such as start, leave, end, and begin are often used this way.
ex) • The press conference begins at 9:00 A.M.
• It ends promptly at 9:45.
UNIT 7. FUTURE TIME CLAUSES
NOTES
1. When a sentence about future time has two clauses, the verb in the main clause is often in the future (will or be going to). The verb in the time clause is often in the present tense.
ex) • He'll look for a job when the graduates.
• I'm going to work after I graduate.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Do not use will or be going to in a future time clause.
The time clause can come at the beginning or the end of the sentence. The meaning is the same. Use a comma after the time clause when it comes at the beginning. Do not use a comma when it comes at the end.
ex) • Before she applies , she'll visit schools.
• She'll visit schools before she applies.
2. Here are some common time expressions you can use to begin future time clauses.
a. When, after, and as soon as often introduce the event that happens first.
ex) • When I graduate, I'll look for a job.
• I'll look for a job after I graduate.
• As soon as I graduate, I'll look for a job.
(first I'm going to graduate. Then I'll look for a job.)
b. Before, until, and by the time often introduce the event that happens second.
ex) • Before I get a job, I'll finish school.
• I won't get a job until I finish school.
• By the time I get a job, I'll be out of school.
(First I'll finish school. Then I'll get a job.)
c. While introduces an event that will happen at the same time as another event.
ex) • While I look for a job, I'll continue to study.
(I will look for a job and study during the same time period.)
UNIT 8. WH- QUESTIONS: SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
NOTES
1. Use wh- questions (also called information questions) to ask for specific information.
ex) • Who did you see at Al's Grill?
• Why did you go there?
Wh- questions begin with question words such as who, what, where, when, why, which, whose, how, how many, how much, and how long.
ex) • How many people saw you there?
• How long did you stay there?
2. When you are asking about the subject (usually the first part of the sentence), use a wh- question word in place of the subject.
ex) • Someone saw you. → Who saw you?
• Something happened. → What happened?
3. When you are asking about the predicate (usually the last part of the sentence), the word order is similar to the word order of a yes / no question, but the question begins with a wh- word.
ex) • You saw someone. Did you see someone? → Who did you see?
• She said something. Did she say something? → What did she say?
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! When you ask a wh- question about something in the predicate, you need either:
a. a form of the verb be (am, is, are, was, were).
ex) • Who is Harry Adams?
• Why was he at Al's Grill?
b. an auxiliary ("helping") verb such as do, does, did, have, has, can, will.
ex) • Why does she want to testify?
• When did she arrive?
4. USAGE NOTE: In formal English when asking about people in the predicate, whom is sometimes used instead of who.
ex) • Whom did you see?
• who did you see?
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! If the main verb is a form of be, you cannot use whom.
ex) • Who is the next witness?
UNIT 9. REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
NOTES
1. Use a reflexive pronoun when the subject and object of a sentence refer to the same people or things.
ex) • Sara looked at herself in the mirror.
(Sara looked at her own face.)
• They felt proud of themselves.
(They were proud of their own actions.)
2. In imperative sentences with reflexive pronouns, use:
-yourself when the subject is singular.
ex) • "Don't push yourself so hard, Tom," Sara said.
-yourselves when the subject is plural.
ex) • "Don't push yourselves so hard, guys," Sara said.
REMEMBER: In imperative sentences, the subject is you, and you can be either singular or plural.
3. Use a reflexive pronoun to emphasize a noun. In this case, the reflexive pronoun usually follows the noun directly.
ex) • Tom was upset when he lost his job. The job itself wasn't important to him, but he needed the money.
(Tom didn't care about the job; he just needed the money.)
4. By +a reflexive pronoun means alone or without any help.
ex) • Sara lives by herself.
(Sara lives alone.)
• We painted the house by ourselves.
(No one helped us.)
Be+a reflexive pronoun means act in the usual way.
ex) • Just be yourself at your interview.
• He wasn't himself after he lost his job.
5. Use a reciprocal pronoun when the subject and object of a sentence refer to the same people, and these people have a two-way relationship.
ex) • Tom and Sara met each other at work.
(Tom met Sara, and Sara met Tom.)
• We all told one another about our jobs.
(Each person exchanged news with every other person.)
USAGE NOTE: The traditional grammar rule says to use each other when the subject refers to two people, and one another when the subject refers to more than two people. Most people, however, use each other and one another in the same way.
ex) • Sara and Tom talked to each other.
• Sara and Tom talked to one another.
• Sara, Tom, Fred, and Jane talked to one another.
• Sara, Tom, Fred, and Jane talked to each other.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Reciprocal pronouns and plural reflexive pronouns have different meanings.
ex) • Fred and Jane blamed each other.
(Fred blamed Jane, and Jane blamed Fred.)
• Fred and Jane blamed themselves.
(Fred blamed himself, and Jane blamed herself.)
6. Reciprocal pronouns have possessive forms: each other's, one another's.
ex) • Tom and Sara took each other's telephone number.
(Tom took Sara's phone number, and Sara took Tom's.)
UNIT 10. PHRASAL VERBS
NOTES
1. Phrasal verbs (also called two-part or two-word verbs ) consist of a verb and a particle. On, off, up, and down are common particles.
ex) • He put on his lab coat.
• She looked up the word "zoopharmacognosy."
Verb + Particle = Phrasal Verb
Particles and prepositions look the same. However, particles are part of the verb phrase, and they often change the meaning of the verb.
ex) • She's looking up at the sky.
(She's looking in the direction of the sky.)
• She's looking up the word.
(She's searching for the word in the dictionary.)
2. USAGE NOTE: Many phrasal verbs and one-word verbs have similar meanings. The phrasal verbs are more informal and much more common in everyday speech.
ex) • Phrasal verbs ; bring up, figure out, go on, pick out, take off, wake up
• One-word verbs ; raise, solve, continue, select, remove, awaken
3. Phrasal verbs can be transitive or intransitive. Transitive phrasal verbs have direct objects (d.o).
ex) • He set up an experiment.
• They figured out the problems.
Most transitive phrasal verbs are separable. This means that when the direct object is a noun, it can come:
- after the verb +particle
ex) • We dropped off Mary at the lab.
OR
- between the verb and its particle.
ex) • We dropped Mary off at the lab.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! When the direct object is a pronoun, it must come between the verb and the particle.
ex) • We dropped her off.
• He cleaned them up.
4. Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. Intransitive phrasal verbs do not take objects.
ex) • Dr. Rodriguez grew up in Texas.
• He stood up to receive the award.
UNIT 11. ABILITY: CAN, COULD, BE ABLE TO
NOTES
1. Use can to describe an ability in the present.
ex) • She can dance, but she can't skate.
• Can she swim?
2. You can also use be able to to describe an ability in the present or future.
ex) • The new student is able to park a car, but she's not able to drive in traffic yet.
• They'll be able to get tickets for Friday's dance performance, but they won't be able to get front-row seats.
USAGE NOTE: In everyday speech, can is much more common than be able to in the present tense.
ex) • I can park a car, but I can't drive in traffic yet.
3. Use either could or was /were able to to describe a general ability in the past.
ex) • Mary could drive a car with special hand controls.
• Mary was able to drive a car with special handcontrols.
4. You must use was / were able to to describe a special achievement or a single event in the past.
ex) • In 1979, they were able to win second prize in a dance competition.
5. You can use either couldn't or wasn't / weren't able to for any negative sentence describing past ability─either general or specific.
ex) • General Ability : She couldn't walk. or She wasn't able to walk.
• Special Achievement : They couldn't win their first competition. or They weren't able to win their first competition.
6. For forms and tenses other than the present or past, you must use be able to.
ex) • Al wants to be able to take dance lessons next year. (Infinitive form.)
• By June he'll be able to dance at his wedding. (future)
UNIT 12. PERMISSION: MAY, COULD, CAN,
DO NOT MIND IF...?
NOTES
1. Use may, could and can to ask permission.
ex) • May I call you next Friday?
• Could we use our dictionaries?
• Can he come to class with me next week?
USAGE NOTE: Some people feel that may is more formal than can and could. You can use may when you ask formal permission to do something.
ex) • May I leave the room, Professor Lee?
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Requests for permission always refer to the present or the future. When you use could to ask for permission, it is not past tense.
ex) • A: Could I register for the test tomorrow?
B: Certainly. The office will be open at 9:00 A.M.
2. We often say please when we ask permission. Note the word order.
ex) • Could I ask a question, please?
• May I please ask a question?
3. Use Do you mind if....? to ask for permission when it is possible your action will inconvenience someone or make someone uncomfortable.
ex) • A: Do you mind if I clean up tomorrow?
B: Yes, actually, I do mind. I hate to see a mess in the kitchen in the morning.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! A negative answer to the question Do you mind if...? gives permission to do something. It means "It's OK. I don't mind."
ex) • A: Do you mind if my brother comes to class with me?
B: Not at all.
(Your brother may come with you.)
4. Use may or can to answer requests for permission. Don't use could in answers.
ex) A: Could I borrow this pencil?
B: Yes, of course you can.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Do not contract may not.
ex) No, you may not.
We also frequently use certain expressions instead of modals to answer requests for permission.
ex) A: Could I close the window?
B: Sure. / Certainly. / Go ahead. / No, please don't. It's hot in here.
5. When people refuse permission, they usually do so indirectly. They soften the refusal with an apology and an explanation.
ex) • Student: Can I please have five more minutes to answer this question?
Teacher: I'm sorry, but the time is up.
Sometimes, when the rules are very clear, someone will refuse permission without an apology or an explanation.
ex) • Driver: Can I park here?
Officer: No, you can't.
UNIT 13. REQUESTS: WILL, WOULD, COULD, CAN,
WOULD YOU MIND...?
NOTES
1. Use will, would, could and can to ask someone to do something.
We often use will and can for informational requests.
We use would and cloud to soften requests and make them sound less demanding.
ex) • Sister: Will you bring dessert?
Can you turn on the TV?
Boss: Would you answer my phone for me, Marica?
Could you give me a copy of the sales report?
2. Use please to make the request more polite. Note the word order.
ex) • Could you please close the door?
• Could you close the door, please?
3. We also use Would you mind + gerund to make polite requests. Note that a negative answer means that you will do what the person requests.
ex) • A: Would you mind waiting for a few minutes? Mr. Caras is still in a meeting.
B: Not at all.
(OK. I'll do it.)
4. People usually expect us to say yes to polite requests. When we cannot say yes, we usually apologize and give a reason.
ex) • A: Could you take this to Susan Lane's office for me?
B: I'm sorry, I can't. I'm expecting an important phone call.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Do not use would or could in response to polite requests.
ex) • A: I'm cold. Would you shut the window, please?
B: Certainly.
UNIT 14. ADVICE: SHOULD, OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER
NOTES
1. Use should and ought to to say that something is advisable.
ex) • Fred and Tom should answer that want ad soon.
• They ought to go on some job interviews.
USAGE NOTE: We do not usually use the negative of ought to in American English. We use shouldn't instead.
ex) • They shouldn't wait.
2. Use had better for urgent advice─when you believe that something bad will happen if the person does not follow the advice.
ex) • Kids, you'd better leave now, or you'll miss the school bus.
USAGE NOTE: The full form had better is very formal. We usually use the contraction.
ex) • You'd better apply for more than one job.
The negative of had better is had better not.
ex) You'd better not be late.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Had better always refers to the present or the future, never to the past (even though it uses the word had).
ex) • We'd better take the bus now.
• You'd better call them back tomorrow.
3. Use should for questions. We do not usually ought to or had better for questions.
ex) • Should I go to secretarial school?
• When should I apply?
4. It is usually considered impolite to give advice to people of equal or higher status (such as friends or bosses) unless they ask for it. However, it is polite to give advice to these people when they ask for it.
ex) • Friend : Should I shake hands with the interviewer?
You : Yes, you should.
Boss : Where should I take our client to lunch?
You : I think you should go to the Tuscan Grill.
When we give unasked-for advice, we often soften it with maybe, perhaps, or I think.
ex) • Myra, maybe you ought to call Capital Training Institute.
UNIT 15. SUGGESTIONS: LET'S, COULD, WHY DON'T..?
WHY NOT...?, HOW ABOUT..?
NOTES
1. Use Let's, (May be) ... could, Why don't / doesn't, Why not, and How about to make suggestions.
ex) • A: Let's take a trip this summer.
B: Maybe we could go to Costa Rica.
A: Why don't we ask luke to go with us?
B: Good idea. Why doesn't Tom call him tonight?
A: Why not call him right now?
B: How about staying at youth hotels?
A: Yes. How about the hotel in the rain forest?
USAGE NOTE: We usually use these expressions when we are speaking in informal situations or in an informal note or letter. We don't usually use them in formal situations.
ex) • Why don't you visit Paris?
• May I suggest that you visit Paris?
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! When someone uses Why not and Why don't / doesn't to make a suggestion, these expressions are not information questions. The speaker does not expect to receive information from the listener.
ex) • Suggestion
A: Why don't you visit Jill in New York?
B: That's a good idea.
• Information Question
A: Why don't you eat meat?
B: Because I'm a vegetarian...
2. Let's always includes the speaker. It means Here's a suggestion for you and me.
ex) • Let's go to Miami. We need a vacation.(I suggest that we go to Miami.)
• Let's not stay at a hotel. (I suggest that we don't stay at a hotel.)
3. Note the different forms to use with these expressions.
ex) ‣ Base Form Of The Verb
• Let's take the ferry.
• Maybe we could take the ferry.
• Why don't we take the ferry to Hong Kong island?
• Why doesn't she take the ferry to Hong Kong island?
• Why not take the ferry?
‣ Gerund Or A Noun
• How about taking the ferry?
• How about the ferry?
4. Notice the punctuation at the end of each kind of suggestion.
ex) ‣ Statements
• Let's go to a concert.
• Maybe we could go to a concert.
‣ Questions
• Why don't we go to a concert?
• Why not go to a concert?
• How about going to a concert?
• How about a concert?
UNIT 16. PRESENT PERFECT: SINCE AND FOR
NOTES
1. Use the present perfect with since or for to take about something that began in the past and continues into the present (and may continue into the future).
ex) • Martina has been a professional tennis player since 1994.
• she has been a professional tennis player for several years.
(She began her professional career several years ago, and she is still a professional player.)
2. Use the present perfect with since + point in time (since 5:00, since Monday, since 1994, since yesterday) to show when something started.
ex) • She has earned millions of dollars since 1994.
3. Since can also introduce a time clause.
ex) • Martina has loved sports since she was a child.
When the action in the time clause ended in the past, use the simple past tense.
ex) • She has won many tournaments since she moved from Slovakia.
(She doesn't live there anymore.)
When the action in the time clause began in the past but continues to the present, use the present perfect.
ex) • She has become very successful since she has been in Switzerland.
4. Use the present perfect with for + length of time (for ten minutes, for two weeks, for years, for a long time) to show how long a present condition has lasted.
ex) • Matina's mother has been her coach for many years.
5. The present perfect is formed with have or has + past participle.
ex) • She has lived there for years.
The regular form of the past participle is the base form of the verb + -d or -ed. This form is the same as the regular simple past form of the verb.
ex) • They have played together many times since 1998.
There are many irregular past participles. Some common ones are listed below.
ex) • She has bought two new rackets since March.
• They haven't won a tournament for several years.
UNIT 17. PRESENT PERFECT: ALREADY AND YET
NOTES
1. We often use the present perfect with already in affirmative sentences to talk about events that happened some time before now. It is possible that the event happened earlier than expected.
ex) • A: Is your daughter going to get her flu shot?
B: She's already gotten it.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Do not use the present perfect with already when you mention a specific past point in time or a past time expression.
Already usually comes between have / has and the past participle.
ex) • Researchers have already discovered cures for many diseases.
Already can also come at the end of the clause.
ex) • They've made a lot of progress already.
2. Use the present perfect with not yet to talk about events that have not happened before now. it is possible that we expected the event to have happened earlier, and it is still possible that the event will happen in the future.
ex) • They haven't discovered a cure for the common cold yet, but they hope to discover one in the future.
Notice that yet usually comes at the end of the clause.
ex) • The flu season hasn't arrived yet.
Yet can also come between have not / has not and the past participle.
ex) • They haven't yet discovered a cure for the common cold.
3. We usually use yet in question to find out if something has happened before now.
ex) • Has your son gotten his flu shot yet?
USAGE NOTE: Sometimes we use already in a question to express surprise that something happened sooner than expected.
ex) • Has he already gotten his flu shot? The flu season hasn't begun yet.
UNIT 18. PRESENT PERFECT: INDEFINITE PAST
NOTES
1. Use the present perfect to talk about things that happened ai an indefinite time in the past. You can use the present perfect when you don't know when something happened, when you do not want to be specific, or when the specific time is not important.
ex) • They've won several awards.
• I've interviewed the whole cast.
• She's been in a Hollywood movie.
2. Use the present perfect to talk about repeated actions at some indefinite time in the past.
ex) • He's been on a lot of talk shows over the past two weeks.
• I've seen his show many times.
3. You can use ever with the present perfect to ask questions. It means at any time up until the present.
Use never to answer negatively.
ex) • A: Have you won an award? or Have you ever won an award?
B: No, I've never won one. or No, never.
4. Use the present perfect with certain adverbs of time to emphasize that something happened in the very recent (but still indefinite) past.
ex) • We've just gotten back from LA.
• I've recently signed a contract to write a book.
• He hasn't had time lately.
USAGE NOTE: In spoken American English people often use just and recently with the simple past tense to refer to indefinite time.
ex) • We just got back from LA.
UNIT 19. PRESENT PERFECT AND SIMPLE PAST TENSE
NOTES
1. The present perfect is used to talk about things that started in the past, continue up to the present, and may continue into the future.
ex) • They have lived apart for the past three years.
(They started living apart three years ago and are still living apart.)
The simple past tense is used to talk about things that happened in the past and have no connection to the present.
ex) • They lived in Detroit for three years.
(They lived in Detroit until 1990. They no longer live in Detroit.)
2. The present perfect is also used to talk about things that happened at an unspecified time in the past.
ex) • They have decided to travel back and forth.
(We don't know exactly when the decision was made, or the timing of the decision is not important.)
The simple past tense is used to talk about things that happened at a specific time in the past. The exact time is known and sometimes stated.
ex) • They lived in Detroit in 1990.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Do not use specific past time expressions with the present perfect except after since.
ex) • I lived in Detroit in 1997.
3. Use the present perfect to talk about things that have happened in a time period that is not finished, such as today, this morning, this month, this year.
ex) • She's had three cups of coffee this morning.
(It's still this morning, and it's possible that she will have some more.)
Use the simple past tense to talk about things that happened in a time period that is finished, such as yesterday, last month, last year.
ex) • She had three cups of coffee yesterday.
(Yesterday is finished.)
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Some time expressions like this morning, this month, or this year can refer to a finished or unfinished time period. Use the present perfect if the time period is unfinished. Use the simple past tense if the time period is finished.
ex) • It's 10:00 A.M. She's had three cups of coffee this morning.
(The morning is not over.)
• It's 1:00 P.M. She had three cups of coffee this morning.
(The morning is over.)
UNIT 20. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
NOTES
1. Use the present perfect progressive (also called the present perfect continuous) to talk about an action or situation that began in the past and continues to the present. The action or situation is usually not finished. It is continuing, and it will probably continue into the future.
ex) • It's been raining all day. When is it going to stop?
• They've been looking for work, but they haven't found anything yet.
• I've been reading an interesting book. I'll give it to you when I'm finished.
REMEMBER: Non-action (stative) verbs are not usually used with the progressive. ex) • He's known a lot of homeless people.
2. Also use the present perfect progressive for repeated actions that started in the past and continue up to the present. Verbs that are frequently used in this way are: hit, punch, knock, cough, jump, nod, and kick.
ex) • John has been coughing all morning.
• The interviewer has been nodding his head sympathetically.
• I've been knocking on the door for two minutes. I don't think anyone is home.
3. Use the present perfect progressive to describe actions that have stopped in the recent past. The action is not happening right now, but there are results of the action that you can still see.
ex) • It's been raining. The streets are still wet.
• John has been fighting. He has a black eye.
UNIT 21. PRESENT PERFECT AND PRESENT PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
NOTES
1. The present perfect often shows that an activity or state is finished. The emphasis is on the result of the action.
ex) • I've read a book about elephants.
(I finished the book.)
• She's written an article.
(She finished the article.)
The present perfect progressive often shows that an activity or state is unfinished. It started in the past and is still continuing.
ex) • I've been reading a book about elephants.
(I'm still reading it.)
• She's been writing an article.
(She's still writing it.)
2. Sometimes you can use either the present perfect OR the present perfect progressive. The meaning is basically the same. This is especially true when you use verbs such as live, work, study, and teach with for or since.
ex) • She's studied African elephants for three years.
• She's been studying African elephants for three years.
(In both cases, she started studying elephants three years ago, and she is still studying them.)
3. The present perfect places more emphasis on the permanence of an action or state.
ex) • They've always lived in Africa.
The present perfect progressive emphasizes the temporary nature of the action.
ex) • They've been living in Africa for three years, but they are returning to France next month.
4. We often use the present perfect to talk about:
- how much someone has done
ex) • I've read a lot about it.
- how many times someone has done something
ex) • I've been to Africa twice.
- how many things someone has done
ex) • She's written three articles.
We often use the present perfect progressive to talk about how long something has been happening.
ex) • I've been reading books on elephants for two months.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! We usually do not use the present perfect progressive when we describe a number of completed events.
ex) • I've read that book twice.
UNIT 22. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
NOTES
1. Use adjectives when you are describing or giving more information about nouns (people, places, or things).
ex) • It's a quiet building.
(Quiet tells you more about the building.)
Adjectives usually come immediately before the noun they describe.
ex) • This is a small house.
Adjectives can also come after the verb when it is non-action (stative) verb such as be, look, seem, appear, smell, or taste.
ex) • This apartment is small.
• This house looks small.
2. Use adverbs when you are giving more information about verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
ex) • They furnished it nicely. • They got it very quickly.
• It's an extremely nice house.
3. Use adverbs of manner when you are describing or giving more information about action verbs. These adverbs often answer "How ?" questions.
ex) • She described the apartment perfectly.
(perfectly tells you how she described the apartment.)
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Do not put on an adverb of manner between the verb and the direct object.
ex) • He'll rent this apartment quickly.
4. Also use adverbs when describing or giving more information about adjectives or other adverbs.
ex) • It's absolutely perfect.
(Absolutely tells you just how perfect the apartment really is.)
These adverbs usually come immediately before the adjective or adverb they describe.
ex) • It will rent very quickly.
(Very tells you how quickly the apartment will rent.)
5. Use adverbs of frequency to express how often something happens.
ex) • She usually rents to students.
6. Adverbs of manner are often formed by adding -ly to adjectives.
ex) • We need a quick decision.
• You should decide quickly.
(quickly = quick +ly)
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Some adjectives also end in -ly ─ for example, silly, freiendly, lovely, and lonely.
ex) • It's a lovely apartment.
7. Some adverbs of manner have two forms: one with -ly and one without -ly.
ex) • slowly or slow / quickly or quick / loudly or loud / clearly or clear
• Don't speak so loudly; the neighbors will hear.
OR
Don't speak so loud, the neighbors will hear.
USAGE NOTE: The form without -ly is often used in informal speech.
8. Some common adverbs do not end in -ly ─for example, the adverb form of good is well.
ex) • She's a good manager. She manages the building well.
A few adjectives and adverbs have the same form─for example, early, fast, wrong, late, and hard.
ex) ‣Adjective
• The visitor was late.
• She is a hard worker.
‣Adverb
• He woke up late.
• She works hard.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Adding -ly to the adjectives late and hard changes the meaning of these words.
Lately is not the adverb form of late. Lately means "recently."
ex) • We haven't seen any nice apartments lately. We are getting discouraged.
Hardly is not the adverb form of hard. Hardly means "almost not."
ex) • There's hardly enough room for a bed. The bed takes up most of the room.
9. Participial adjectives are adjectives that end with -ing and -ed. The two forms have different meanings.
ex) • This fly is disgusting. (Causes feelings of disgust.)
• This woman looks disgusted. (Feels disgust.)
• Your story is amazing. (Causes amazement.)
• I'm amazed at your story. (Feel amazement.)
UNIT 23. ADJECTIVES: COMPARATIVES AND EQUATIVES
NOTES
1. Use the comparative form of adjectives to focus on a difference between people, places, and things.
ex) • The new room is bigger than the old room.
• The new waiters are more experienced than the old waiters.
2. There is more than one way to form the comparative of adjectives.
a. For one-syllable adjectives and two-syllable adjectives ending in -y, use adjective +-er.
ex) ‣Adjective : bright / friendly
‣Comparative: brightly / friendlier
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! There are often spelling changes when you add -er.
ex) ‣Adjective : nice / big / pretty
‣Comparative: nicer / bigger / prettier
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Some adjectives have irregular comparative forms.
ex) ‣Adjective : good / bad
‣Comparative: better / worse
b. for most other adjectives of two or more syllable, use:
more +adjective
AND
less +adjective
ex) • comfortable - more comfortable / less comfortable
• expensive - more expensive / less expensive
c. For some adjectives, use either -er or more / less.
ex) • The Inn is pleasanter than Joe's.
• The Inn is more pleasant than Joe's.
• Joes's is less pleasant than the Inn.
3. Use the comparative with than when you mention the things you are comparing.
ex) • The apple pie is better than the cake.
Use the comparatives without than when it is clear from the context which things you are comparing.
ex) • The new desserts are better.
(The new desserts are better than the old desserts.)
4. To talk about change─an increase or a decrease─use:
comparative comparative
adjective +and + adjective
OR
more +and + comparative
less adjective
ex) • It's getting harder and harder to find an inexpensive restaurant.
• It's becoming more and more difficult.
(Both sentences mean the difficulty is increasing.)
• I'm less and less interested in cooking.
5. To show cause-and-effect, use:
the + comparative + the + comparative
adjective adjective
ex) • The more crowded the restaurant, the slower the service.
(When the restaurant gets more crowded, the service gets slower.)
6. You can also use the equative (as + adjective + as) to compare people, places, and things. Use equative to express both similarities and differences.
ex) • The waiter is as polite as the waitress, but he's not as fast as she is.
(The waiter and waitress are equally polite, but they are not equally fast.)
Use as + adjective + as to compare people, places, or things that are equal in some way. Use just to emphasize the equality.
ex) • The new menu is just as good as the old menu.
(The new menu and the old menu are equally good.)
Use not as + adjective + as to compare people, places, and things that are different in some way.
ex) • The new menu isn't as expensive as the old menu.
(The new and old menus have different prices. The items on the new menu cost less.)
REMEMBER: It is not always necessary to mention both parts of the comparison. Sometimes the meaning is clear from the context.
ex) • I liked the old menu. The new one isn't as varied.
(The new menu isn't as varied as the old menu.)
7. Comparatives and equatives often express the same meaning in different ways.
ex) • The Inn is more expensive than Joe's
• Joe's isn't as expensive as the Inn.
• Joe's is less expensive than the Inn.
USAGE NOTE: With one-syllable adjectives, we usually use not as... as. We do not use less ... than.
ex) • Our table isn't as big as theirs.
UNIT 24. ADJECTIVES: SUPERLATIVES
NOTES
1. Use the superlative form of adjectives to single out one thing from two more things.
ex) • You are the nicest person in the world.
• You are the most wonderful friend I've ever had.
2. There is more than one way to form the superlative of adjectives.
a. For one-syllable adjectives or two-syllable adjectives ending in -y, use:
the + adjective + -est.
ex) ‣ Adjective : bright / friendly
‣ Superlative: the brightest / the friendliest
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! There are often spelling changes when you add -est.
ex) ‣Adjective : nice / big / pretty
‣Superlative: the nicest / the biggest / the prettiest
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Some adjectives have irregular superlative forms.
ex) ‣Adjective : good / bad
‣Superlative: the best / the worst
b. For most other adjectives of two or more syllables, use:
the most + adjective
OR
the least + adjective
ex) ‣Adjective : comfortable / expensive
‣Superlative: the most comfortable / the most expensive
the least comfortable / the least expensive
c. For some adjectives, use either the ... -est or the most / the least.
ex) • My third trip was the pleasant.
• My third trip was the most pleasant.
• My third trip was the least pleasant.
3. The superlative is often used with expressions beginning with in and of, such as in the world and of all.
ex) • You're the best mother in the world.
• You're the most wonderful brother in the universe.
• He is the smartest one of us all.
• This is the most practical gift of all the gifts I've received.
4. The superlative I sometimes followed by a clause. Often the clause uses the present perfect with ever.
ex) • That's the nicest card I've ever received.
• You have the loveliest smile I've ever seen.
UNIT 25. ADVERBS: EQUATIVES, COMPARATIVES,
SUPERLATIVES
NOTES
1. Use the equative, (as +adverb +as) to talk about actions that are the same or equal. Use just to emphasize the equality.
ex) • Kerr played just as well as most players.
(He and the other players played equally well.)
Use not as + adverb +as to talk about actions that are not the same or equal.
ex) • Jordan didn't play as aggressively as O'Neal.
(Jordan and O'Neal played differently. Jordan played aggressively, but he played less aggressively than O'Neal.)
2. Use the comparative form of adverbs to focus on the differences between actions.
ex) • The Bulls played better than the Lakers.
• Jordan ran faster than O'Neal.
• He played more skillfully than O'Neal.
• He played less aggressively than O'Neal.
3. It is not always necessary to name the second person or thing. Sometimes it is clear from the context who or what that is.
ex) • Jordan played hard. O'Neal played just as hard (as Jordan).
• Jordan shot more consistently (than O'neal).
4. Use the superlative form of adverbs to single out something about an action.
ex) • Kukoc worked the hardest.
We often use the superlative with expressions beginning with of, such as of any player.
ex) • he scored the most frequently of any player on the team.
5. There is more than one way to form the comparative and superlative of adverbs.
a. For one-syllable adverbs or for adverbs whose forms are the same as adjectives, use -er or -est.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Some adverbs have irregular comparative and superlative forms.
ex) ‣Adverb : fast / hard / well / badly
‣Comparative: faster / harder / better / worse
‣Superlative : the fastest / the hardest / the best / the worst
b. For other adverbs of two or more syllables, use more / less or the most / the least. Most of these adverbs end in -ly.
ex) ‣Adverb : skillfully
‣Comparative: more / less skillfully
‣Superlative : the most / the least skillfully
c. Note that some adverbs of manner have two comparative and two superlative forms.
USAGE NOTE: Although more quickly, more slowly, and the most quickly and the most slowly are the traditional comparative and superlative forms of these adverbs, quicker, slower, and the quickest, and the slowest are often heard in informal speech.
ex) ‣Adverb : quickly / slowly
‣Comparative: more quickly , quicker / more slowly, slower
‣Superlative : the most quickly, the quickest / the most slowly, the slowest
6. To talk about change─an increase or a decrease─use:
comparative comparative
adverb + and + adverb
OR
more + and + comparative
less adverb
ex) • Kukoc is playing better and better as the season continues.
• He is playing more and more aggressively.
7. To show a cause-and-effect relationship, use:
the +comparative + the + comparative
adverb adverb
ex) • The harder he played, the better he performed.
UNIT 26. GERUNDS: SUBJECT AND OBJECT
NOTES
1. Gerunds (base form of verb + -ing) are verbs that function like nouns. The gerund can be the subject of a sentence.
ex) • Smoking is bad for your health.
• Traveling by plane was fun.
Notice that the gerund is always singular and is followed by the third-person- singular form of the verb.
ex) • Eating junk food makes me sick.
• Inhaling smoke gives me bronchitis.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Don't confuse the gerund with the progressive form of the verb.
ex) • Drinking coffee isn't healthy.
• He is drinking coffee right now.
2. Gerunds are also used as the object of certain verbs.
To the right is a short list of verbs that can be followed by gerunds.
ex) • I enjoy exercising.
• I've considered joining a gym.
admit deny miss resent
avoid enjoy practice suggest
consider finish quit understand
3. There are many common expressions with go +gerund. These expressions usually describe activities, such as shopping, fishing, skiing, swimming, and camping.
ex) • We often go swimming in the lake.
• Yesterday I went shopping for a new pair of running shoes.
UNIT 27. GERUNDS AFTER PREPOSITIONS
NOTES
1. Prepositions are words such as about, against, at, by, for, in, instead of, of, on, to, with, and without. Prepositions can be followed by nouns or pronouns.
ex) • The council is against tuition increases.
• The council is against them.
Since gerunds (base form of the verb + -ing) act as nouns, they can follow prepositions too.
ex) • The council is against raising tuition.
2. Many common expressions are made up of a verb or an adjective followed by a preposition. These expressions can be followed by a gerund.
ex) • advise against be afraid of
believe in be bored with
count on be excited about
• She dreams of going to college.
• He is bored with working in a shop.
3. In the expressions to the right, to is a preposition, not part of an infinitive form. For this reason it can be followed by the gerund.
ex) • look forward to be accustomed to
object to be opposed to
resort to be used to
• I’m looking forward to seeing you.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Be used to +gerund means "be accustomed to."
Get used to +gerund means "get accustomed to."
ex) • I am used to driving to work.
• I have to get used to taking the train.
UNIT 28. INFINITIVES AFTER CERTAIN VERBS
NOTES
1. Certain verbs can be followed by an infinitive (to +base form of the verb).
ex) • I want to make some new friends.
• I asked Annie to help me.
• She advised me to relax.
• She told me not to worry.
2. Some of these verbs are followed directly by an infinitive.
ex) • He decided to join a health club.
• He hoped to meet new people.
• She promised to go with him.
• She tried not to be late.
The verbs to the right can be followed directly by an infinitive.
ex) • begin plan
decide promise
fail refuse
hope seem
learn try
3. Some verbs require an object (noun or pronoun) before the infinitive.
ex) • I invited Mary to celebrate with us.
• I reminded her to come.
The verbs to the right requires an object before the infinitive.
ex) • advise order
allow remind
encourage tell
force urge
invite warn
4. Some verbs can be followed by either:
an infinitive
OR
an object +infinitive
ex) • He wants to leave.
• He wants you to leave.
The verbs to the right can be followed either directly by an infinitive or by an object +infinitive.
ex) • ask need
expect want
help would like
5. Form the negative infinitive by placing not before the infinitive.
ex) • Lee remembered not to call after 5:00. (Lee didn’t call after 5:00.)
• Ana told me not to go to class. (Ana: “Don’t go. The teacher is sick.”)
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! A sentence with a negative infinitive can have a very different meaning from a sentence with a negative main verb.
ex) • Van told me not to give up.
(Van: “Don’t give up. You’ll meet someone soon.”)
• Van didn’t tell me to give up.
(Van didn’t say anything.)
UNIT 29. INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE
NOTES
1. Use an infinitive (to +base form of the verb) to explain the purpose of an action. It often answers the question Why?
USAGE NOTE: In spoken English, you can answer the question Why? with an incomplete sentence beginning with To.
ex) • A: Why did you go to Lacy’s?
B: I went there to buy one of those Datalators I saw in an ad.
OR
To buy an electronic organizer.
2. You can also use the longer form, in order to +base form of the verb to explain a purpose.
ex) • I bought an organizer in order to store names and phone numbers.
USAGE NOTE: To +base form of the verb is more common in informal speech and writing.
ex) • I bought an organizer to store names and phone numbers.
3. Use in order not to +base form of the verb to express a negative purpose.
ex) • I use my Datalator in order not to make mistakes in pronunciation.
(I don’t want to make mistakes.)
4. You can also use:
noun / pronoun +infinitive
to express the purpose of an object.
ex) • I need an organizer to help me remember my schedule.
• I need it to help me remember my schedule.
UNIT 30. INFINITIVES WITH TOO AND ENOUGH
NOTES
1. Use too +adjective / adverb +infinitive to give a reason.
ex) • I’m too young to vote. (I’m too young, so I can’t vote.)
• She isn’t too young to vote. (She isn’t too young, so she can vote.)
• I arrived too late to vote. ( I arrived too late, so I couldn’t vote.)
• She didn’t arrive too late to vote.
(She didn’t arrive too late, so she could vote.)
2. You can also use adjective /adverb +enough +infinitive to give a reason.
ex) • I’m old enough to go into the army.
(I’m old enough, so I can go into the army.)
• He isn’t old enough to go into the army.
(He isn’t old enough, so he can’t go into the army.)
• I ran fast enough to pass the physical.
(I ran fast enough, so I passed the physical.)
• She didn’t run fast enough to pass the physical.
(She didn’t run fast enough, so she didn’t pass the physical.)
3. Notice that you don't need to use the infinitive when the meaning is clear from the context.
ex) • I’m seventeen years old, and I can’t vote yet. I’m too young. I’m not old enough.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Note the placement of too and enough.
Too comes before the adjective or adverb.
ex) • She’s too old.
Enough comes after the adjective or adverb.
ex) • I’m not old enough.
4. Sometimes we use for +noun or pronoun before the infinitive.
ex) • We are too young for people to trust us.
(People don’t trust us.)
• We are too young for them to trust us.
(They don’t trust us.)
UNIT 31. GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES
NOTES
1. Some verbs are followed by the gerund.
ex) • Marta enjoys meeting people.
• She misses going to parties.
To the right is a list of verbs that can be followed by the gerund.
ex) • appreciate prohibit
can’t stand recall
mind resist
2. Some verbs are followed by the infinitive.
ex) • Marta wants to meet people.
• She’d like to go to parties.
To the right is a list of verbs that can be followed by the infinitive.
ex) • afford need
agree offer
expect want
3. Some verbs can be followed by either the gerund or the infinitive.
ex) • Marta loves meeting new people.
• Marta loves to meet new people.
To the right is a list of verbs that can be followed by the gerund or the infinitive.
ex) • begin like
continue love
hate prefer
4. BE CAREFUL ! A few verbs (for example, stop, remember, and forget) can be followed by either the gerund or the infinitive, but the meanings are very different.
ex) • Marta stopped eating ice cream. (She doesn’t eat ice cream anymore.)
• Marta stopped to eat ice cream.
(She stopped another activity in order to eat some ice cream.)
• Richard remembered mailing the invitation.
(First he mailed the invitation. Then he remembered that he did it.)
• Richard remembered to mail the invitation
(First he remembered. Than he mailed the invitation. He didn't forget.)
• Marta forgot meeting Richard.
(Marta met Richard, but afterwards she didn’t remember the event.)
• Marta forgot to meet Richard.
(Marta had plans to meet Richard, but she didn’t meet him because she forgot about the plans.)
5. The gerund is the only verb form that can follow a preposition.
ex) • Marta’s worried about forgetting people’s names.
• She apologized for not remembering his name.
6. To make general statements, you can use:
gerund as subject
OR
it + infinitive
ex) • Meeting new people is fun.
• It’s fun to meet new people.
UNIT 32. PREFERENCES: PREFER, WOULD PREFER,
WOULD RATHER
NOTES
1. Use prefer, would prefer, and would rather to talk about things or activities that you like better than other things or activities.
ex) • We usually prefer Italian food.
• I’d prefer to have Chinese food tonight.
• I’d rather cook at home.
USAGE NOTE: We usually use the contraction for would in speech and in informal writing.
ex) • I’d rather go.
We often use prefer to express a general preference.
We use would prefer or would rather to talk about a preference in a particular situation.
ex) • A: Which do you prefer—action movies or romantic comedies?
B: I usually prefer action movies, but tonight I’d rather see a romantic comedy.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Do not use will to talk about a preferences.
ex) • I’d rather go to the rock concert next weekend.
2. Prefer and would prefer may be followed by a noun, a gerund, or an infinitive.
ex) • I usually prefer the newspaper.
• I’d prefer a newspaper.
• Does Bill prefer reading magazines?
• Would Bill prefer reading a magazines?
• He prefers to watch TV.
• He would prefer to watch soccer.
3. Would rather can only be followed by the base form of the verb.
ex) • A: Would you like to eat out tonight?
B: I’d rather cook dinner at home.
We often use I'd rather not, by itself, to refuse an offer, suggestion, or invitation.
ex) • A: Would you like some dessert?
B: I’d rather not. I’ve had enough to eat.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! The negative of I'd rather is I'd rather not.
ex) • I’d rather not have dessert.
4. A comparison with to may follow prefer / would prefer +noun.
ex) • Lani prefers comedies to action movies.
• She’d prefer Dave to Speed.
A comparison with to may also follow prefer / would prefer +gerund.
ex) • I prefer visiting friends to attending big parties.
• Tonight I’d prefer visiting Lani to going to the office party.
5. A comparison with than may follow would rather +base form of the verb.
ex) • They’d rather eat out than cook.
(They like eating out better than cooking.)
• I’d rather watch football than play it.
(I like watching football better than playing it.)
UNIT 33. NECESSITY: HAVE(GOT) TO, DON'T HAVE TO,
MUST, MUST NOT, CAN'T
NOTES
1. Use have to, have got to, and must to express necessity. Note these differences among the three expressions:
a. Have to is the most common expression in everyday use.
ex) • Everyone has to pass a road test before getting a driver’s license.
b. Have got to is usually only used in spoken English and informal writing. When it is used orally, it often expresses strong feelings on the part of the speaker.
ex) • We’ve got to stop for lunch soon. I’m starving.
c. Must is used to express obligation in writing, including official forms, signs, and notices.
ex) • You must stop completely at a stop sign.
USAGE NOTE: Americans do not usually use must when speaking to or about another adult. Sometimes people use must to tell a child there is no choice in a situation.
ex) • Jess, you must clean your room before Grandma gets here.
2. You can use have to for all tenses.
ex) • Everyone has to pass a road test.
• She’ll have to renew her license next year.
Have got to and must refer only to the present or the future.
ex) • I’ve got to get glasses soon because I didn’t pass the eye test.
• Everyone must take an eye test in order to get a driver’s license.
Use the correct form of have to for all other tenses.
ex) • Sheila has had to drive to work for two years. (present perfect)
• After his traffic accident, Sal had to take a driver-improvement class.
(past tense)
3. Use have to for most questions.
ex) • Does Paul have to drive? He always goes too fast.
USAGE NOTE: We almost never use must or have got to in questions.
ex) • Did he have to drive all night?
• When will he have to leave?
4. BE CAREFUL ! Have(got) to and must have similar meanings. However, must not and don't / doesn't have to have very different meanings.
a. Must not expresses prohibition.
ex) • You must not drive without a license. It’s against the law.
USAGE NOTE: We often use can't instead of must not to express prohibition in spoken English.
ex) • You can’t drive without a license. It’s against the law.
b. Don't / doesn't have to expresses that something is not necessary. It means that there is a choice.
ex) • You don’t have to drive tomorrow. I can do it.
UNIT 34. EXPECTATIONS: BE SUPPOSED TO
NOTES
1. Use be supposed to talk about different kinds of expectations:
a. rules and usual ways of doing things
ex) • You’re not supposed to run near the swimming pool. It’s a safety rule.
• The groom is supposed to arrive at the ceremony early. It’s a custom.
b. predictions
ex) • It’s not supposed to rain tomorrow. I heard it on the radio.
• It’s supposed to be a lovely day.
c. hearsay (what everyone says)
ex) • The beach is supposed to be beautiful in August. Everyone says so.
• I’ve never met them, but the groom’s family is supposed to be very nice. People are always saying good things about them.
d. plans or arrangements
ex) • Let’s hurry. We’re supposed to meet the Smiths in front of the movie theater at 8:00.
• Am I supposed to send these invitations today?
• Sob’s plane is supposed to arrive at noon.
• The ceremony isn’t supposed to begin yet.
2. Use be supposed to only in the simple present tense or in the simple past tense.
ex) • The bride is supposed to wear white.
• The ceremony was supposed to begin at 7:00.
Use the simple present tense to refer to both the present and the future.
ex) • I’m supposed to be at the wedding rehearsal tomorrow.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Was / Were supposed to often suggests that something did not happen.
ex) • Carl was supposed to bring flowers, but he forgot.
• The Hamptons were supposed to come to the wedding, but they had to leave town.
UNIT 35. FUTURE POSSIBILITY: MAY, MIGHT, COULD
NOTES
1. Use may, might, and could to talk about future possibility.
ex) • It may be windy later.
• It might get cold.
• It could rain tomorrow.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Notice the difference between may be and maybe. Both express possibility.
May be is a modal +verb. It is always two words.
ex) • He may be late today.
Maybe is not a modal. It is an adverb. It is always one word, and it comes at the beginning of the sentence.
ex) • Maybe he’ll take the train.
2. Use may not and might not to express the possibility that something will not happen.
ex) • There are a lot of clouds, but it might not rain.
Use couldn't to express the idea that something is impossible.
ex) • A: Why don’t you ask John for a ride?
B: I couldn’t do that. He’s too busy.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! We usually do not contract might not, and we never contract may not.
ex) • You may not need a coat.
3. Questions about possibility usually are not formed with may, might, or could. Instead, they are formed with the future (will, be going to, the present progressive) or phrases such as Do you think...? or Is it possible that...?
ex) • A: When will it start snowing?
B: It might start around lunch time.
• A: Are you going to drive to work?
B: I might take the bus instead.
The answers to these questions often contain may, might, or could.
ex) • A: When are you leaving?
B: I may leave now.
• A: Do you think it’ll snow tomorrow?
B: It could stop tonight.
In short answers to yes / no questions, use may, might, or could alone.
ex) • A: Will your office close early?
B: It might.
If be is the main verb, it is common to include be in the short answer.
ex) • A: Will our flight be on time?
B: It might be.
UNIT 36. ASSUMPTIONS: MUST, HAVE(GOT) TO, MAY,
MIGHT, COULD, CAN'T
NOTES
1. We often make assumptions, or "best guesses,' based on information we have. The modal that we choose depends on how certain we are about our assumption.
ex) ‣Positive ‣Negative
•must •can’t, couldn’t
•have(got) to •must not
•may •may not
•might, could •might not
2. When the facts make us almost 100 percent certain, we state a conclusion.
Use must, have to, or have got to to state affirmative conclusions.
ex) ‣ Fact ‣Conclusion
• Wilson has only one clerk. • His shop must be quite small.
• Wilson applied for a job. • He has to need money.
• The League pays men for • It's got to be a joke.
having red hair.
USAGE NOTE: We use have got to in informal speech and writing. We usually contract have or has.
3. When we are less certain, we express possibilities.
Use may, might, or could to express affirmative possibilities.
ex) ‣Fact ‣Possibility
• Wilson has a hole in his sleeve. • He may write a lot.
• Watson knows a lot about medicine. • He might be a doctor.
• Vincent knows a lot about cameras. • He could be a photographer.
4. To express negative assumptions, use the following modals:
ex) • He can’t be dead! I think he’s still breathing!
Use can't and couldn't when you are almost 100 percent certain that something is impossible.
ex) • Vincent couldn’t be dishonest! I trust him completely!
Use must not when you are slightly less certain.
ex) • He must not have enough money.
He never buys new clothes.
Use may not and might not when you are less certain.
ex) • He may not know about the plan.
His boss doesn’t tell him everything.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Have to and have got to are not used to make negative assumptions.
ex) • It can’t be true!
5. Use can and could in questions about possibility.
ex) • Someone’s coming. Who can it be?
• Could Vincent be in the shop?
USAGE NOTE: We rarely use might in question about possibility, and we never use may in this type of question.
ex) • RARE Might he be in the shop?
6. In short answers, use have(got) to or a modal alone.
ex) • A: Could Ann know Marie?
B: She has to. They’re neighbors.
• A: Does she still work at Wilson’s?
B: She may not. I saw a new clerk there.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Use be in short answers to question that included be.
ex) • A: Is Ron still with City Bank?
B: I'm not sure. He might not be.
• A: Are his parents still alive?
B: They’ve got to be. He still talks about them.
UNIT 37. NOUNS AND QUANTIFIERS
NOTES
1. Proper nouns are the names of particular people, places, or things. They are usually unique (there is only one.) To the right are some categories and examples of proper nouns.
ex) • People : Heyerdahl, Chadians
• Places : Bolivia, Egypt, the Atlantic
• Months : September, October
• Days : Monday, Tuesday
• Holidays : Ester, Passover, Ramadan
• Languages / Nationalities : Arabic, Italian, Norwegian
• Seasons : spring, summer, fall, winter
Capitalize the first letter of most proper nouns. We do not usually use an article (a / an or the) with a proper noun.
ex) • The ancient Egyptians called their sun god Ra.
• The ship sailed in May.
• We spent Passover at sea.
Seasons are usually not spelled with a capital letter, and they are often preceded by the.
ex) • We arrived in the spring.
2. Common nouns refer to people, places, and things, but not by their individual names. For example, explorer is a common noun, but Heyerdahl is a proper noun. To the right are some categories and examples of common nouns.
ex) • People : explorer, sailor, builder
• Places : continent, country, city
• Things : pots, eggs, fish, honey
3. Common nouns can be either count or non-count. Count nouns (also called countable nouns) are things that you can count separately. They can be singular or plural. For example, you can say a ship or three ships. You can use a / an or the before count nouns.
ex) • a sailor, the sailor, two sailor
• an island, the island, three islands
• a ship, the ship, four ships
4. Non-count nouns (also called uncountable or mass nouns) are things that you cannot count separately. For example, in English you can say gold, but you cannot say a gold or two golds. Non-count nouns usually have no plural forms. We usually do not use a / an with non-count nouns. To the right are some categories and examples of non-count nouns.
ex) • Abstract words : courage, education, time
• Activities : exploring, sailing, farming
• Fields of study : geography, history
• Foods : corn chocolate, fish
• Gases : air, oxygen, steam
• Liquids : water, milk, gasoline
• Materials : cotton, plastic, silk
• Natural forces : cold, electricity, weather
• Particles : dust, sand, sugar, salt
Some common non-count nouns do not fit into the above categories. You must memorize nouns such as the ones to the right.
ex) • advice homework mail
equipment information money
furniture jewelry news
garbage luggage work
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! When a non-count noun is the subject of a sentence, its verb must be singular. Pronouns that refer to non-count nouns must also be singular.
ex) • Reed is a good material for boats.
It floats in the heaviest storm.
5. You can use the quantifiers some, enough, a lot of, and any with both count and non-count nouns.
ex) • We have some eggs and some honey.
• Are there enough pots and enough oil?
• There were a lot of good times.
• There was a lot of danger too.
Use any in negative sentences and in questions.
ex) • We didn’t see any sharks.
• Is there any tea left?
6. You can use a few, several, and many with plural count nouns in affirmative sentences.
ex) • A few team members got sick.
• They experienced several large storms.
• Many people worried about them.
You can use a little, a great deal of, and much with non-count nouns in affirmative sentences
ex) • They had a little trouble with the sail.
• They threw away a great deal of food.
• Much planning went into this.
USAGE NOTE: In affirmatives sentences, many is more formal than a lot of;
much is very formal.
ex) • MORE FORMAL: Many people agreed.
• LESS FORMAL: A lot of people agreed.
• VERY FORMAL: We saw much pollution.
• LESS FORMAL: We saw a lot of pollution.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Don't confuse a few and a little with few and little. Few and little usually mean "not enough."
ex) • They received a little news during their voyage.
(not a lot, but enough)
• They received little news during their voyage.
(probably not enough news)
7. Use many with count nouns and much with non-count nouns in questions and negatives sentences.
ex) • A: How many ships did they see?
B: They didn’t see many.
• A: How much water did they carry?
B: They didn’t carry much.
USAGE NOTE: In questions and negatives sentences many and much are appropriate for both formal and informal English.
UNIT 38. ARTICLES: INDEFINITE AND DEFINITE
NOTES
1. A noun is indefinite (not specific) when either you or your listener do not have a particular person, place, or thing in mind. Use the indefinite article a / an with singular count nouns that are not specific.
ex) • A: Let’s buy a video game.
B: Good idea.
(A and B are not talking about a specific game.)
Use a before consonant sounds.
ex) • a magician, a great adventure
Use an before vowel sounds.
ex) • an evil magician, an adventure
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! It is the sound, not the letter, that determines if you use a or an.
ex) • a universe (universe = /'yunə,vɚs/)
• an honest warrior (honest = /'αnɪst/)
2. Use some or no article with plural count nouns and with non-count nouns that are not specific. In these types of statements, some means an unspecified number.
ex) • There are (some) games on the shelf.
(The speaker doesn’t mention which games or the number of games.)
PRONUNCIATION NOTE: Do not stress some in these sentences.
ex) • A: I had to buy (some) medicine.
• B: Oh. Are you sick?
(B doesn’t know what kind of medicine A bought.)
3. A noun is definite when you and your listener both know which person, place, or thing you mean. Use the definite article, the, with nouns that are specific for you and yours listener. You can use the with most nouns, count and non-count, singular and plural.
ex) • A: I bought the video game yesterday.
B: Great! We’ve been talking about it for a long time. Is it fun?
(B knows which game A means. They’ve spoken about it before.)
• A: The new video games are great.
B: I know. I’m glad we bought them.
(B knows which games A means. They have talked about them before.)
• A: I bought the medicine.
B: Good. Why don’t you take some now?
(B knows which medicine A means. They have already spoken about it.)
4. Use the when a person, place, or thing is unique─there's only one.
ex) • There’s a hole in the ozone layer.
• The moon is 250,000 miles away.
5. Use the when the context makes it clear which person, place, or thing you mean.
ex) • A: What do you do?
B: I’m the pilot.
(A and B work on a plane with only one pilot. A is a new crew member.)
• A: The music was great.
B: I enjoyed it, too.
(A and B are coming out of a concert.)
Often, a phrase or an adjective such as right, wrong, first, best, or only identifies which one.
ex) • Donkey Kong was the first video game with a story.
• Ben pushed the wrong button.
6. A noun is often indefinite the first time a speaker mentions it. It is usually definite after the first mention.
ex) • An evil magician is trying to conquer the Earth. The magician is very powerful.
• You have some gold. Use the gold to buy magic tools.
• Buy medicine too. The medicine makes you stronger.
7. Use a/an for singular count nouns when you classify (say what something or someone is.)
ex) • A: What do you do for a living?
B: I’m a pilot. And you?
A: I’m a doctor.
8. Use no article for plural count nouns and for non-count nouns when you classify.
ex) • A: What are those?
B: They’re magic tools.
A: And what’s that?
B: It’s gold. I just won it.
⦊ BE CAREFUL ! Do not use some when you classify.
ex) • A: Look at those sharks!
B: Those aren’t sharks. They’re dolphins.
9. Use no article with plural count nouns and non-count nouns to make general statements.
ex) • Sue loves video games.
(video games in general)
• Music is relaxing.
(music in general)
Some in general statements means some, but not all.
ex) • I like some video games, but a lot of them are boring.
PRONUNCIATION NOTE: Stress some in these sentences.