임용캠프특강자료

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음성, 음운론(Phonetics & Phonology)

1. monophthong & diphthong & triphthong

monophthong: the sound of a vowel relatively unchanged during its

production(one sound) -- [e], [a:], . .

diphthong: the sound of a vowel continually changed within a single syllable

(2 sounds) -- [aɪ], [aʊ], [ɔɪ], . . .

a. fronting diphthong:   [e], [aɪ], [ɔɪ]

b. centering diphthong:  [ɪə], [ɛə], [aə], [ɔə], [ʊə]

c. backing diphthong:   [aʊ], [o]

triphthong: the three sequential sounds of a vowel continually changed within

a single syllable -- [eɪə], [aɪə], [ɔɪə], [aʊə], [oʊə]

# The important rule in studying phonetics and phonology is to ignore spelling

and focus only on the sounds of utterances.

2. vowel quadrangle

	front	central	back
high	i ɪ		u ʊ
mid	e ɛ	ə,ɝ ʌ	o (ɔ)
low	æ		ɔ a

tense vowel: [i], [e], [u], [o], [ɔ:], [a:], [ɝ]

lax vowel:    [ɪ], [ɛ], [æ], [ʊ], [ə], [ʌ], [ɔ], [a]

rounded vowel: [u], [ʊ], [o], [ɔ] -- 'boot, put, boat, bore'

stressed lax vowel: [ʌ] -- 'bus, mother, hut, cut, tough, cover, flood'

stressed tense schwa: [ɝ] -- 'firm, urge, burn, murk, heard, earn'

unstressed lax schwa:  [ə], [ɚ]

3. English consonant segments by a three-term label

a. the manner of articulation: stop, fricative, affricate, nasal,

approximant(liquid, glide), flap

b. the place of articulation: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar,

alveopalatal, palatal, velar, glottal

c. voicing: voiced, voiceless

# flap: allophone of a phoneme /t/ or /d/ in the examples 'writer, rider,

latter, ladder, bottle, matter, saddle, automatic

Place	Bilabial		Labio- dental		Dental		Alveolar		Alveo- palatal		Palatal		Velar		Glottal
voicing Manner	vl	vd	vl	vd	vl	vd	vl	vd	vl	vd	vl	vd	vl	vd	vl	vd
Plosive	p	b					t	d					k	g	ʔ
Fricative			f	v	ɵ	ð	s	z	š	ž					h
Affricate									č	ǰ
Nasal		m		ɱ				n						ŋ
Liquid								l,r
Glide		(w)										y		w
Flap								ɾ

# Some English consonants and vowels are limited in their positions in a word:

phonetic symbol	word positions
	initial	medial	final
ʒ(ž)	―	vision	massage
h	head	behind	―
ŋ	―	anger	king
ɪ	it	sit	―
ɛ	edge	red	―
æ	anger	nap	―
ʌ	oven	love	―
ʊ	―	book	―

# Exercise

1) Identify all the words in the following that contain an alveolar fricative

between two vowel sounds:

craze, case, rose, busy, doze, electricity, ace, raising, pleasing

2) Identify all the words in the following that begin with an approximant:

link, talk, quick, unit, sew, judge, youth, write, onion, one, union, witch

3) Identify all the words in the following that end with a voiceless fricative:

dogs, laugh, boxes, rags, cuts, through, tough, bath, loathe, dearth

4) Identify all the words in the following that end with a vowel sound:

fly, stop, flow, lime, psalm, sleigh, through, rose, type, tour, blew, serene

5) discrepancies between the spelling and sounds

(a) same sound represented by different letters:

[i]:  each, bleed, either, achieve, scene, busy,...

[ʃ]:  shop, ocean, machine, sure, conscience, mission, nation,...

(b) same letter representing different sounds:

-a-: gate, any, father, above, tall

-s-: sugar, vision, sale, resume

(c) one sound represented by a combination of letters:

thin, rough, attempt, pharmacy

(d) a single letter representing more than one sound:

exit,  union, human

[ks] [ju]   [hj]

4. obstruent and sonorant

obstruent: plosive, fricative, affricate,

sonorant: nasal, liquid(flap), glide, vowel

(sonority scale: vl stop < vd stop < vl fricative <vd fricative < nasal <

iquid(lateral<flaps) < glide < high vowel < mid vowel < low vowel)

cf) sibilant: Alveolar and palato-alveolar fricatives(affricates) are more intense

and have greater amounts of acoustic energy at higher frequencies

such as [s, z, š, ž, č, ǰ].

5. phoneme: the smallest unit of sound

pin: /p/ +/ɪ/ +/n/  (three phonemes)

rough: /r/ +/ʌ/ +/f/ (three phonemes)

throb [θrɑːb]

suspicious [səˈspɪʃəs]

encourage [ɪn|kɜːrɪdʒ](미)    [ɪn|kʌrɪdʒ](영)

exhaustive [ɪɡˈzɔːstɪv]

allophone: phonetic difference of the same phoneme

phoneme     allophone

/p/       [ph], [p], [p˚]([pㄱ]) : pen, spin, top

/t/        [th], [t], [t˚], [ɾ], [t], [ʔ]: ten, stop, cat, writer, hit them, button

/k/       [kh], [k], [k˚] : cake, skin, take

/l/        [l], [ɫ], [] : learn, milk, little

/d/       [d], [ɾ], [ʔ] : dish, rider, sudden

/ɪ/        [ɪ], [ĩ] : pit, sin

/m/       [m], [], [m], [ɱ]: move, small, prism, comfort

/n/       [n], [], [], [ɱ], []: net, snail, bitten, invite, seventh

minimal pair: a pair of words whose sounds differ by one phone only

cheap-jeep, fill-kill, pain-pen, pan-pine, kill-thrill, hand-hang, pith-pitch,

debt-dead, body-buddy, scene-bean, third-bird, seen-scene, either-ether…

6. major three allophones of voiceless stops /p, t, k/

aspirated: [ph], [th], [kh]  pack, dispose, ten, attack, keep, require

unaspirated: [p], [t], [k]  ripple, apron, special, street, squeak, winkle

unreleased: [pㄱ], [tㄱ], [kㄱ]  top, liftman, cat, frank, quick

cf) Glottal stops in /t/ or /d/

- little, cattle, rider: [ʔ] or [ɾ]

- before syllabic nasal :mutton, cotton, button, sudden, certain-- [ʔ]

- syllable final [ʔ]: Batman,  Hitler,  atlas,   hit me,  hot water

[bæʔ.mæn] [hɪʔ.lɚ] [æʔ.ləs] [hɪʔ.mi] [haʔ.wɔɾɚ]

- preglottalization(glottal reinforcement): hit,    tap,    sack

[hɪʔt], [tæʔp], [sæʔk]

→ The tip of the tongue makes contact with the alveolar ridge

in a glottally reinforced [ʔt]

7. coarticulation: Coarticulation refers to articulatory movements for one phone           which are carried over into the production of previous or subsequent phones.

(the overlapping of adjacent articulations)

Secondary Articulation: An articulation made by the organs of speech                                 that are not involved in the primary articulation. But this                            results in coarticulation

a. palatalization[j]: not yet, get you, caught you  [t]+[j]=[ʧ]

did you, would you  [d]+[j]=[ʤ]

b. nasalization[ ̃]: not now, man, goodness, nickname, congress

c. dentalization[ ̪]: eighth, both tub, tenth

d. labialization[w]: queen[kwwi:n], room[rwu:m], cool/kwʊl/, lobe[lwoub]

e. velarization[ ̴]: almost, also, little, pill, school, field, silk

cf) wealth[wɛɵ], kill them[kɪðɛm]

f. glottalization[ʔ]: Glottalization occurs when an oral plosive is produced

simultaneously with a glottal stop. The larynx is pulled

downward in the throat with the glottis closed, producing a

reduced air pressure between the two points of occlusion.

e.g.) beaten, rotten, cotton, certain, sudden ([bitʔn] → [biʔn])

8. complementary distribution and phonetic similarity with [h] and [ŋ]

a. [h]-[ŋ] with separate phonemes,

[h] never occurs in word-final position, or before another consonant. In fact, it      appears only in syllable-initial position; [ŋ] never occurs in word-initial             position, but does occur in word- and syllable-final position. So the two sounds      are in complementary distribution. Given that these two sounds are in               complementary distribution, we could claim that they are allophones of the          same phoneme. But notice that they have almost nothing phonetically in             common: [h] is a voiceless glottal fricative while [ŋ] is a voiced velar stop. So      the suggestion that they are allophones of the same phoneme must be rejected      on grounds of lack of phonetic similarity. Native speakers of English would          never consider [h] and [ŋ] to be allophones of the same phoneme.

b. [n]-[n̪] with the same single phoneme,

The distribution of these two sounds is such that they never appear in the          same environment.

> the dentalized sound only before /ɵ/ or /ð/

tenth[tɛɵ],  in the game[ɪðə …]

# Phonetic Distributions

① contrastive distribution: 동일한 수의 음소를 가진 동일한 음의 환경에서 특정한 한        음소만이 다르게 실현되어 단어들을 구별해 줄 수 있는 소리들

[  ɪn] bin, tin, din, kin, fin, thin, sin, shin, chin, gin, win, Lynn

[p  n] pen, pan, pain, pun, pine /pɛn, pæn, pein, pʌn, pain/

[pɪ  ] pip, pit, pill, pith, pitch, pick, pig, ping

=> at least one minimal pair

② complementary distribution: 한 음소에 속하는 이음은 서로 환경이 겹치지 않는다.

phoneme      allophone

/t/    :   [th], [t], [tㄱ]

alveolar stop      alveolar stop

e.g.) [th]이 생성되는 자리에 [t] 또는 [tㄱ]는 나타날 수 없다.

=> not minimal pair

③ overlapping(parallel) distribution: 동일한 환경에 둘 이상의 소리가 나타나 의미의

차이가 생긴다.

a. bath[bæƟ]: /b/          b. cage[keiʤ]: /k/      c.  it [ɪt]: /ɪ/

path[pæƟ]: /p/             gage[geiʤ]: /g/         eat[it]: /i/

=> minimal pair

9. free variation: Free variations are produced both phonemically and phonetically.

If it has the same meaning when a sound within a word is realized as               different sounds phonemically or phonetically, then the different sounds are          free variation.

button: [t],[ʔ] (phonetic)

either, neither: [aɪ], [i] (phonemic)

economics: [i], [ɛ] (phonemic)

back: [k], [kㄱ] (phonetic),         pen: [ɛ], [ɪ] (phonemic)

happy:[i], [ɪ] / believe, kitchen:[ɪ], [ə] / bushes:[ɪz], [əz]

10. syllable and phonotactics

- Syllable has an important role with respect to the phonotactic constraints in          languages. This refers to the system of arrangement of sounds and sound           sequences. It is on this basis that a speaker of English can judge some new         form as a possible/impossible word.

e.g.) Both blit and bmit are not-existing as English words.

But if asked choose between the two, a native speaker of English would go         for blit. The reason for this is that [bl] is a possible onset cluster in               English, whereas [bm] is not.

cf) submarine[sʌb.mə.rin], submission[sʌb.mɪ.ʃən]: This is possible only if these         two sounds are in different syllables.

syllable structure: onset(C), nucleus(V), coda(C)

σ

/    ＼

onset    rhyme

/   ＼

nucleus  coda

side:        σ                  chart:         σ                  σ

/   ＼                            /   ＼             /   ＼

O      R                          O     R           O    R

|     /   ＼                       |    /   ＼        |    /  ＼

s    N     C                      ʧ   N    C       ʧ   N    C

|      |                          |    / ＼         |     |

aɪ     d                           a    r   t        ar     t

C    V     C                      C   V   C  C       [aɚ]

C   V   C

- Closed syllable and Open syllable

closed syllable: up, hut, asks, treat, ...

open syllable: oh, straw, tree, through, ...

- Light syllable & Heavy syllable

light syllable:  short vowel -- a.mong

heavy syllable:  short vowel + coda  -- net, nest

long vowel / diphthong + (coda)  -- seed, sea, side

exercise: How many light or heavy syllables do these words have?

refuse,    realization,   kangaroo,    balance,   temptation

- English syllable formula: (C)(C)(C) V (C)(C)(C)(C)

eighteen syllable shapes in English

V,         CV,         CCV,        CCCV

VC,        CVC,        CCVC,       CCCVC

VCC,       CVCC,      CCVCC,      CCCVCC

VCCC,     CVCCC,     CCVCCC,    CCCVCCC

(VCCCC)    CVCCCC    CCVCCCC

oh,         to,          tree,         straw

at,          hut,         stick,        street

eighth,      rats,        trust,        strains

asks,        tasks,       tramps,      sprints

(angsts),    sixths,       twelfths

11. initial CCC and CC clusters

(1) initial CCC clusters :  s + voiceless stop + approximant

s + p + l, r, j          : splash, spring, spew

s + t + r, j             : stream, stew

s + k + l, r, j, w       : sclaff, scream, skew, square

(s + m + j) : smew(the name of bird)

*/spw/, */stl/, */stw/ : potential cluster

*/pdz/, */bfn/, */gtb/: illicit cluster

(2) initial CC clusters

p + l, r, j            b + l, r, j

t + r, j, w            d + r, j, w

k + l, r, j, w          g + l, r, j, w

m + j                 n + j

l + j

f + l, r, j             v + j

ɵ + r, j, w           s + l, j, w, p, t, k, m, n, f

ʃ + r                 h + j

- No words in English may begin with /ŋ/, /jai/, /ðʊ/, /ɵɔi/, /zʌ/.

- /mf/ occurs after /ʌ/ as in comfort, while /ŋ/ may only occur after /ɪ, æ, ʌ, ɒ/.

12. syllabification: member, extra

member:  /.mɛm.bə./,  */.mɛ.mbə./,  */.mɛmb.ə./

/mb/ cannot appear in both word-initial and word-final position.

extra: /.ɛk.strə./, /.ɛks.trə./, /.ɛkst.rə./ -> /s/ and /t/ can be onsets or codas

as long as it obeys English phonotactics

*/.ɛ.kstrə./  */.ɛkstr.ə./

ambisyllabicity: The consonant following the stressed lax vowels [æ, ɛ, ɪ, ɔ,

ʌ, ʊ] in the syllable-final positions can be ambisyllabic.

happen:     σ             σ

/   ＼        /   ＼

O     R      O     R

|    /   ＼  /     /  ＼

h   N     C      N   C

|      |      |    |

æ      p      ə    n

medicine, origin, finish, funny, federal, positive, Canada, river, punish,…

cf) origine:  [|ɔːrɪdʒɪn], [│ɑːrɪdʒɪn]: (미)  /  [|ɒrɪdʒɪn]: (영)

# condition for syllabification:

1. Every syllable should be an open syllable.

2. If a syllable cannot be an open syllable, then its coda should be

as short as possible.

3. A stressed lax vowel cannot be in syllable-final position.

4. Onset is superior to coda.

13. Coda deletion

(1) When the word ending in a cluster is followed by a word that begins with

a consonant, the final member of the cluster is deleted.

hand made  [hæn med]   (cf. hand out)  spend money, grand bargain

next class  [nɛks klæs]   (cf. next hour) just now, best thing

left street  [lɛf strit]      (cf. left arm)

(2) consonant deletion in words with suffixes and in compounds

compound:    handsome [hænsəm]

added suffix:  textless [tɛkslɪs]

added suffix:  softness [safnɪs]

(3) The deletion is not observed if the consonant after the final cluster is /h/.

wild horse   *[waɪl hɔrs]

guest house  *[gɛs haʊs]

(4) If the consonant after the cluster is a liquid, the deletion is optional.

hand luggage [hæn(d) lʌgəʤ]

guest list     [gɛs(t) lɪst]

(5) If clusters are created by the addition of grammatical endings,

this simplification is much less likely. Thus we get the following

non-reduced forms.

planned trip [plænd trɪp]

fixed game [fɪkst gem]

autographed book [ɔtəgræft bʊk]

14. progressive and regressive assimilation

happen[hæpm]         input[ɪmpʊt]          nickname[nɪŋnem]

cats[kæts]             think[ɵɪŋk]           goodness[gʊdnɪs]→[gʊnnɪs]

dogs[dɔgz]             washed[wɔʃt]         kindness[kaɪnnɪs]

man[mæn]             sing[sĩŋ]              tenth[tɛnɵ]

finished [ˈfɪnɪʃt]        banned[bænd]

15. flaps: [ɾ]

An allophone of /t/ or /d/ between a stressed vowel and an unstressed vowel:

autumn, rhetoric, notable, atom, Italy, seeding, automatic,…

cf) put on, at all, eat up…(flapped in the coda of the unstressed syllable)

a tall(not flapped in the onset of the stressed syllable)

cf) nationality[næʃənæləɾi], calamity[kəlæməɾi]

r-coloring vowel: porter[pɔrɾɚ], border[bɔrɾɚ]

before syllabic liquid: little, cattle, bitter, water, total, matter, saddle,

- neutralization(homophony): writer-rider, grater-grader, latter-ladder,

bitter-bidder, liter-leader

- rhotic sound: r-colored sound [ɚ, ɝ]  -- bird, writer, hear, fare, mother, …

16. derived morphology

primary derivative: a. prefix + bound morpheme

con + ceive,  re + ceive,  de + ceive

b. bound morpheme + suffix

anim + al,     anim + ate

secondary derivative: a. prefix + free morpheme

en + close,  en + list,  en + able

b. free morpheme + suffix

act + ive,  act + or

# derivational affix: Change of the syntactic structure and the meaning of a word

noun → adjective: boy-ish, virtu-ous, health-ful, alcohol-ic

noun → verb: beauti-fy, symbol-ize, nasal-ize

noun → adverb: back-ward, clock-wise

verb → noun: refus-al, clear-ance, sing-er, free-dom

verb → adjective: read-able, forc-ible

adjective → verb: sadd-en, simpl-ify, popular-ize

adjective → noun: happi-ness, san-ity

adjective → adverb: slow-ly, quiet-ly

17. exocentric construction: Affix that changes the syntactic structure of a word

accept + able = acceptable

blame + able = blamable

adapt + able = adaptable

love + er = lover

hunt + er = hunter

endocentric construction: Affix that don't change the syntactic structure of

a word

prefix:  a + moral                 suffix:    boy + hood

auto + biography                    young + ish

ex + wife                           friend + ship

super + man                        teenage + er

re + print                           wait + ress

semi + annual                       machine + ry

18. affix group

affix I: involving stress move and nasal assimilation with morpheme boundary

affix II: not involving those with word boundary

Affix I                       Affix II

in+     +ous               anti#       #ful

con+    +ant                mono#      #ish

de+     +ity                electro#    #ism

auto+  +ive                pro#        #ist

+en    +ible               #ness      #ize

+ate    +able              #less

+y      +ion               #ly

+ic     +ory               #al

+acy                       un#

cf) dual class affixes(Selkirk, 1982): -ize, -ment, -able, -ism, -ist, -ive, -y,

hyper-, circum-, neo-, auto-, mono-

1.  a.  píous - ímpious,   fínite - ínfinite

b.  láwful - unláwful,   gráteful - ungráteful

2.  a. in+legal → illegal    *inlegal

b. un+lawful → unlawful    *ullawful

19. morphophonemics : 하나의 morpheme이 환경에 따라 다른 phoneme으로 실현 됨.

형태론적 과정에 의한 음소변화를 이형태(allomorph)라고 함.

commit - commission

submit - submission

admit – admission

dominate[|dɑːmɪneɪt] - domination [|dɑ:mɪ|neɪʃn]

revert[rivə́:rt] – reversion[rɪˈvɜːrʒn]

decide [dɪˈsaɪd] - decision [dɪˈsɪʒn]

/t/ or /d/  + /ɪ ə n/ (or /jən/)

+

[ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ]

Clearly the addition of the noun-forming suffix -ion has had more                phonological effects on the base than you might expect from just the addition of     -ion. In each case the final sound of the base has undergone a change. This        change is morphophonemic: that is, it is a phonemic change caused by a            morphological process. There are many such processes and they lead us to the     concept of allomorphy. A morpheme may have different phonemic realizations in     different contexts. The plural in English, for example, has a variety of forms.        Each of these: /s/, /z/, and /ɪz/, is an allomorph of the plural morpheme.

morpheme       allomorph(morphophonemic alternation)

-s(es)                  [s]     [z]    [ɪz]

plural           :     cats,   dogs,   buses

possession      :    Jack's   John's  George's

simple present  :    jumps   runs    catches

-ion(noun)        :      [ʃ],        [ʒ],      [ʧ]

commission, reversion, question

(commit)    (revert)   (quest)

20. word formation rule

read + able    :        [[read]v  + able]adj.    '읽을 수 있는‘

※ 통사론적 제약, 의미론적 제약, 형태론적 제약, 음운론적 제약을 수반

a. phonology: the change of pronunciation

b. syntax: the change of syntactic structure

c. semantics: the change of meaning

singable,  mowable,  *sitable,  *bookable,  *blackable

vt            vt            vi            n              adj.

a. syntactic constraint:

readable, breakable, washable, *diable, *goable, *sleepable

b. semantic constraint:

John repunched the holes in the paper.

*John repunched Bill.

c. morphological constraint:

felicity, vivacity  → Latin(root) +ity  / *widity, *strongity

boyhood, motherhood → English(root) + hood

d. phonological constraint:

brighten,  harden  → adjective final /t/ or /d/ + verb suffix en

*calmen

cf)  dark + en = v        sweet + ie = v

adj.                     adj.

21. stress-timed rhythm: Stressed syllables in English occur at regular time              intervals. This leads us to say that English is stress timed, that is, the period       of time between each stressed syllable, irrespective of the number of               intervening unstressed syllables, is roughly equal. Each stressed syllable and        the unstressed ones which follow it are grouped together to form a metrical         unit we call the foot. All utterances may be divided up into feet.(To ensure         that, for example, a foot of five syllables is of the same duration as one of         two syllables.)

Definition of foot: The foot is a metrical unit consisting of a stressed syllable       and all unstressed syllables up to but not including the next stressed syllable.

a. The man laughed.                       a. The big man.

b. The manager laughed.                   b. The violent man.

1. What did you hope to discover by this test?

2. What's the problem with all these people?

3. ‖ What's the ‖ difference between a ‖ free and a ‖ bound ‖ morph?

22. meter

The patterns of rhythm form a kind of grid within which the poetry is written.      Meter has two aspects: the number of feet to a line and the positioning of          weak and strong beats in a foot, i.e. stress placement to a foot. If there are        only two feet to a line, then the meter is termed dimeter; if there are three,        trimeter; four, tetrameter; five, pentameter; and six, hexameter.

23. foot

Feet come in four traditional forms. If there are only two syllables in the foot       then the stressed syllable must come first or second. If first, then the foot is       termed a trochee and the meter trochaic. If second, then the foot is an iamb        and the meter iambic. The child's rhyme eeny meeny miney mo is trochaic. The      line starts with a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one and carries       on that way until the last syllable, which is also stressed. Iambic rhythm is          much more commonly used in English poetry.

iambic pentameter: Thomas Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea

Shakespeare's Richard III

Now is the winter of our discontent

Made glorious summer by this sun of York

If there are three syllables to a foot, then as far as traditional meter goes, they      have the stressed syllable either first or last. If first, the foot is a dactyl and       the meter dactylic, if last, the foot is an anapaest and the meter anapaestic.

24. spoonerism: This results when the initial sounds or groups of sounds are                          exchanged between two words, as in "May I sew you to your                       sheet?" instead of " May I show you to your seat?"

e.g.) top notch [taʧ nap]

pretty chilly [ʧɪti prɪli]

blue jay [ʤu ble]

deep structure [stip drʌkʧɚ]

25. Sandhi: Sandhi is the word used to refer to various combinatory phenomena                  that occur at word boundaries in sentences. Words are not necessarily               pronounced the same in sentences as they are in isolation: assimilation               can jump word boundaries, as "did you", often pronounced [dɪǰə].

(a) I # scream -- Ice # cream   (b) a # nice # man -- an # ice # man

26. Homorganic: Made with the same place of articulation. The sounds [d] and [n],                   as in English "hand", are homorganic.

e.g.) watch[ʧ], edge[ʤ], washed[ʃt], button[tn]

27. Phonological Features

① Manner of Articulation Features

Continuant(cont): stops, nasals, affricates --[-cont]

fricatives, nasals, liquids, glides, vowels --[+cont]

Strident(str): f, v, s, z, š, ž, č, ǰ --[+str]

ɵ, ð --[-str]

Delayed Release(d.r.): oral stop, nasal stop --[-d.r.]

the rest --[+d.r.]

② Oral(Place) Articulation Features

Anterior(ant): Anterior sounds are produced with a primary obstruction                            located at or in front of the alveolar region of the mouth.

bilabial, labiodental, interdental, alveolar --[+ant]

alveopalatal, palatal, velar --[-ant]

Coronal(cor): Coronal sounds are produced with the front (tip or blade) of                         the tongue raised from neutral position.

interdental, alveolar, alveopalatal --[+cor]

③ Major Class Features

Syllabic(syl): Segments that constitute a syllable peak are syllabic [+syl].

vowels, syllabic consonants --[+syl]

Sonorant(son): Sonorant sounds are typically produced without an extreme

degree of oral cavity constriction.

nasals, liquids, glides, vowels --[+son]

Consonantal(cons): Consonantal sounds are produced with obstruction along                         the center line of the oral cavity.

all consonants --[+cons]

# glides /j/, /w/ : [-syl, -cons]

[-syl] as long as glides are treated as an independently single unit

[-cons] as long as glides are used as a part of diphthong.

28. Vowels: They are always [-cor] and [-ant].

palatal                    velar

i, ɪ                    u, ʊ    [+hi]

[-hi]

e, ɛ            ə      o

[-lo]

æ                     a, ɔ     [+lo]         [+tense]: i, u, e, o

[-bk]            [+bk]                    [+round]: u, ʊ, o, ɔ

29. nasal assimilation with negative prefix morpheme

The prefix /ɪn/ is realized as phonetic variants [ɪm], [ɪn], [ɪŋ], [ɪl], [ɪr]

A morpheme /ɪn/ with negative meaning is realized as allomorphs like

[im], [in], [iŋ], [il], [ir] depending on the phonetic environments that it is          attached to.

- place assimilation:

possible    impossible

balance     imbalance         [m] + [p, b, m]

mature     immature

tangible      intangible

direct        indirect          [n] + [t, d, n}

numberable   innumberable

conclusive    i[ŋ]conclusive   [ŋ] + [k, g]

gratitude      i[ŋ]gratitude

- manner assimilation:

legal          illegal      [l] + [l]    *inlegal

regular        irregular   [r] + [r]    *inregular

- place assimilation rule:

input           output           context

+ant             +ant

[+nasal]         +cor            +cor

+ant             +ant

-cor             -cor

-ant             -ant

-cor             -cor

C           αant                αant

→           /        #

+nas         βcor                βcor

30. Phonological rule for regular plural suffix[s, z, ɪz]:

We assume /z/ as the underlying form of the regular plural suffix

universally and economically.

(1) Epenthesis rule for the words, buses, roses, dishes, churches,...--[ɪz]

+syl                       +ant

-bk      +str             +cor

∅ →      +hi      +cor   #        +str

-tns                       +vd

plural

[ɪ]    [s,z,š,ž,č,ǰ]  before plural [z]

⇒   /z/  →  [ɪz]  / [+str, +cor]#       #

(2) Voicing Assimilation rule for the words, cats, caps, disks, sixths,... --[s]

+ant

+cor  →  [-vd] / [-vd]  #

+str                          plural

(+vd)

[z]         [s]      voiceless

⇒   /z/  → [-voice] / [-voice]#       #

31. Phonological rule for past tense allomorphs[t, d, ɪd]: underlying form /d/

(1) Epenthesis rule for the words, wanted, lended, handed,...[ɪd]

+cor            +cor

∅ → ɪ /   -d.r.  #         -d.r.

+vd

[d, t]            [d]

⇒  /d/  → [ɪd]  / [-cont, +ant, +cor]#      #

(2) Voicing Assimilation rule for the words, washed, based, laughed, watched,

stopped, picked,...[t]

+cor

-d.r.     → [-vd] /[-vd]#        #

(+vd)

[d]           [t]

⇒  /d/ → [-voice] / [-voice]#       #

32. Vowel reduction: The vowels in the unstressed syllable is reduced as a schwa.

The stressed vowels [ɛ, æ, o] are changed into unstressed schwa [ə].

telegraph[tɛ́ləgræ̀f] → telegraphy[təlgrəfi]

photograph[fótəgræ̀f] → photography[fətágrəfi]

- vowel shortening(laxing)

sign[saɪn]        signature[sígnəʧə(r)]

resign[rɪˈzaɪn]    resignation[ˌrezɪɡˈneɪʃ(ə)n]

sane[sen]        sanity[sænəti]

meter[miɾɚ]      metrical[mɛtrəkəl]

mine[maɪn]       meneral[mɪnərəl]

verbose[vɚbos]   verbosity[vɚbasəti]

[+tense]             [-tense] in antepenult syllable

----------------------------------------

Trisyllabic Laxing Rule:          [+tense] → [-tense] /      CVCV#

consume[kənsum]     consumption[kənsʌmpʃən]

pronounce[prənaʊns]  pronunciation[prənʌnsieʃən], [prəˌnʌnsiˈeɪʃn]

[+tense]                 [-tense]

33. haplology: An entire syllable is lost when it is identical to another syllable.

He stepped lively(not livelyly).

-- In the adverb livelyly of the adjective lively, two identical syllable -lyly is            reduced to a single syllable, -ly.

e.g.) Mississipi, probably, particularly, similarly

34. Aphesis refers to the loss of an unstressed initial vowel or syllable.

e.g.)  'bout, 'round, 'cause, 'lectrician, 'tato, 'member,...

Syncope is the loss of a medial vowel or syllable.

e.g.) choc'late, ev'ning, batt'ry, ev'ry,...

Apocope is the loss of a final vowel or syllable.

e.g.) sing from OE singan,  find from finde

35. Coalescence: Two or more segments can be replaced by one segment that                         shares characteristics of each of the original segments.

It is found in the attachment of the -ion suffix.

demonstrate -- demonstration   /t/ + /y/ = [š]

confess -- confession           /s/ + /y/ = [š]

erode -- erosion                /d/ + /y/ = [ž]

confuse -- confusion            /z/ + /y/ = [ž]

=> As a result, palatalizations occur

36. Metathesis: It is possible to change the linear order of segments by

permutations of one type or another.

prescribe [pɨrskraɪb],         preserve   [pɨrzɨrv]

hundred   [hʌndɨrd],           pronounce [pɨrnauns]

37. Epenthesis: the addition of a vowel sound, usually to separate a group of

consonants resulting in epenthetic vowel inserted.

e.g.) film[fɪləm], athlete[æɵəlit]

judges, dishes, wanted, mended --[ɪ]

38. Elision(deletion)

(1) Unstressed vowel deletion: mystery, general, memory, funeral, vigorous,

Barbara, interest[ɪnt(ə)rɛst], secretary[sɛk(r)ətɛrɪ]

(2) syllable-final consonant deletion(coda deletion): avoiding the sequences of

more than two consonants across the word boundary

west end                        best friend[bəsfrɛnd]

west side[wɛsaɪd]               best orange

(3) Homophonous productions in informal conversational speech: /t/-deletion

planner-planter, canner-canter, winner-winter, tenor-tenter

[plænɚ]         [kænɚ]        [wɪnɚ]         [tɛnɚ]

rental, dental, renter, dented, twenty, gigantic, Toronto

cf) contain, interred, entwined --/t/ on the onset in a stressed syllable

39. Syllabic Consonants

: [m, n, l, r] can be a syllabic nucleus because of its high sonority.

rhythm,     listen,    Rachel,    friar

[rɪðm]      [lɪsn]     [rečl]    [frayr]=[fraɪɚ]

40. Morpheme

boyish,   desirable,   morphology

boyishness,   desirability

gentlemanliness,   undesirability

ungentlemanliness,   antidisestablishmentarianism

(1) singer,  painter,  lover,  worker,.../ nicer,  prettier,  taller,...

songster,  youngster / monster, (finger)

(2) free morpheme: boy, desire, gentle, man (constituting words by themselves)

bound morpheme: un-, pre-, bi-, -ing, -ed, -er, -ist (not constituting words

by themselves) -- undesirable, prejudge, bipolar, sleeping,

performer, typist, linguist,...

41. Word Formation: derivational morpheme -- p. 48-49, Fromkin(9th ed.)

- (adj.) + ify = (v) : purify,  amplify,  simplify,  falsify

(n) + ify = (v) : objectify,  glorify,  personify

-ify(v) + cation = (n) : uglification,  glorification,  simplification,  falsification,

purification

(adj) + al = (adj) :  egotistic + al = egotistical

fantastic + al = fantastical

42. Derivational affixes trigger changes in pronunciation

- change in pronunciation(-y, -ive, -ize, -ity,...): specific - specificity,

sane - sanity,    deduce - deductive,    critic - criticize

- no change in pronunciation(-er, -ful, -ish, -less, -ly, -ness,...):

baker,  wishful,  boyish,  needless,  sanely,  fullness,...

- Affixes from the first class cannot be attached to a base containing an affix

from the second class: *need+less+ity  *moral+ize+ive   object+ive+ism

Ⅱ   Ⅰ           Ⅱ  Ⅰ           Ⅰ   Ⅱ

- Affixes from the second class may attach to bases with either kind of affix:

moral+ize+er       need+less+ness

Ⅱ  Ⅱ              Ⅱ    Ⅱ

43. Hierarchical Structure of Words

unsystematically         refinalizes                 unlockable

adv                  v               ① adj             ② adj

/   ＼               /  ＼               /   ＼             /   ＼

adj     ly            v     s            un   adj            v    able

/   ＼               /   ＼                    /  ＼         /  ＼

adj    al             re     v                  v   able     un   v

/   ＼                      /   ＼               |                  |

un    adj                   adj   ize            lock               lock

/    ＼                 |

noun   atic              final

|

system

e.g.)  unbuttonable,    unzippable,    unlatchable

44. Morphological Productivity

- v + able = adj.:

acceptable, laughable, passable, changeable, breatheable, adaptable, faxable,

downloadable,...

- un-Rule: un+believe+able,    un+pick+up+able

(un- can be attached to an adjective or a verb.)

unhappy,  uncowardly,  *unsad,  *unbrave,  *unobvious

adjectives derived from verb forms (-ed): unenlightened, unsimplified,

uncharacterized, unauthorized, undistinguished,...

Many of the unacceptable -un forms have monosyllabic stems:

*unbig,  *ungreat,  *unred,  *unsad,  *unsmall,  *untall,...

(exception:  unfit,  uncool,  unread,  unclean)

45. English Inflectional Morphemes:

Modern English has only eight bound inflectional affixes.

-s     third-person singular present  ‘wants’

-ed    past tense                     ‘wanted‘

-ing   progressive                    ‘playing’

-en    past participle                  ‘fallen‘

-s     plural                          ‘cats’

-'s     possessive                     ‘girl’s‘

-er    comparative                    ‘taller’

-est    superlative                     ‘tallest‘

irregular forms:  children, mice, feet, went, worse, oxen, hit(present-past)

sheep(singular-plural), data

(a) Inflectional morpheme cannot change the grammatical feature of a word.

: book(n)-books(n),     play(v)-played(v)

(b) One inflectional morpheme can be added to the word-final position.

: dogs, wanted, flying

cf) un + like + ly + hood (derived morpheme)

46. Accidental Gap(lexical gap)

- Accidental gaps are well-formed but nonexisting words: blick, slarm, krobe,

curiouser, linguisticism, antiquify,...

- *bnick is not an accidental gap because no word in English can begin with

a bn-.

- Does ‘unsystem’ show an accidental gap?  No.

47. Ambiguity in Compound Structures

top hat rack

(1)       N              (2)       N

/   ＼                   /    ＼

N      N                Adj     N

/   ＼    |                 |     /   ＼

Adj    N  rack              top   N     N

|     |                           |     |

top   hat                          hat   rack

"a rack for top hats"           "the highest hat rack"

e.g) Waitress' nose ring

48. Consonant alternation with morphological and syllable structures:

The morphological base of English orthography surfaces in certain consonant

letters' alternating behavior.

- post-vocalic /g/-deletion before final nasals:

sign         sígnature

design       designátion

paradigm     paradigmátic

malign       malígnant

phlegm       phlegmátic

(gnostic       agnóstic)

- word-final /b/-deletion after /m/:

bomb     bombardment

limb      limbic

- word-final /n/-deletion after /m/:

damn     damnation

autumn   autumnal

49. Morphological Process:

1. Compounds(복합어)

Adjective          Noun            Verb

Adjective       bittersweet        poorhouse       whitewash

icy-cold

red-hot

worldly wise

---------------------------------------------------

Noun           headstrong        homework        spoonfeed

girlfriend

fighter-bomber

paper clip

mailman

---------------------------------------------------

Verb            feel-good           pickpocket        sleepwalk

carryall

# Compounds with a preposition: overtake(v), sundown(v)

# Other Compounds: three-time loser,

four-dimensional space-time

sergeant-at-arms

mother-of-pearl

man about town

master of ceremonies

daughter-in-law

# Meaning of Compounds:

boathouse(cf. cathouse)

falling star, magnifying glass(cf. looking glass, eating apple, laughing gas)

peanut oil, olive oil(cf. baby oil)

"horse meat is dog meat?" -- meat from horses / meat for dogs

# Some compounds that are not related to the meanings of the individual parts:

jack-in-a-box(tropical tree), turncoat(traitor), highbrow, bigwig, egghead

2. Coinage(신조어): created for some purpose or specific brand names of products

Xerox, Kodak, Dacron, Vaseline, Kleenex(from clean), Jell-O(from gel)

3. Acronym(두음문자, 두문자어): derived from the initials of several words which

may also be pronounced as the spelling indicates

NASA(National Aeronautics and Space Administration): 미항공우주국

UNICEF(United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund):

유엔국제아동긴급기금

UNESCO(United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization):

국제연합교육과학문화기구

NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization): 북대서양조약기구

MASH(Mobile Army Surgical Hospital): 육군이동외과병원

PIN(Personal Identification Number): 개인식별번호(비밀번호)

CUNY/kyunɪ/(City University of New York): 뉴욕시립대학

< ** 첫 글자를 단어처럼 발음할 수 있는 것을 acronym으로 보고 별개의 철자로 따로 읽는 것을 약어(abbreviation)로 구별하여 보는 경우도 있고 첫 글자를 단어처럼 발음할 수 있는 것과 그렇지 않은 것을 모두 포함하여 acronym으로 보는 경우도 있다. >

4. Abbreviation(약어): abbreviated from the initials of some words  =initialism

FBI(Federal Bureau of Investigation): 미연방수사국

BBC(British Broadcasting Corporation): 영국공영방송사

ATM(Automated Teller Machine) 현금 자동 입출금기

5. Blending(혼성, 혼합): partially combined and deleted of two words

smog(smoke + fog),                brunch(breakfast + lunch)

transistor(transfer + resistor)      escalator(escalade + elevator)

sitcom(situation + comedy)         tigon(tiger + lion)

cattalo(cattle + buffalo)             hifi(high + fidelity)

motel(motorist + hotel)            spork(spoon + fork)

6. Clipping(절단): a part in a word representing the meaning of the word as cut                       part(s) of a word

telephone, periwig, photograph, advertisement, laboratory, professor, dormitory,       examination, mathematics, gymnasium, psychology, omnibus, airplane, gasoline,       helicopter, memorandum, discotheque, delicatessen, typographic (error),              turnpike, submarine, subteacher, suboptimal, subtotal, influenza, distiller,             refrigerator(fridge), Liz(Elizabeth), Ron(Ronald), Sue(Susan, Susanna,..),               pianoforte,...

= irregular clipping: specs(spectacles), turps(turpentine), bike(bicycle),

fax(facsimile), mike(microphone), pram(perambulator), (cuke)cucumber

7. Back formation(역형성): produced words from cutting affixes in existing words.

juggler > juggle                      lazy > laze

hang glider > hang glide             sedative > sedate

typewriter > typewrite               television > televise

babysitter > babysit                  peddler > peddle

housekeeper > housekeep            escalator > escalate

preemption > preempt                commuter > commute

editor > edit                          hawker > hawk

stoker > stoke                        swindler > swindle

archer > arch                         resurrection > resurrect

confusion > confuse                   exemption > exempt

donation > donate                     pease > pea

self-destruction > self-destruct       greedy > greed

beggar > beg                         enthusiasm > enthuse

# Exercises

1. Divide the morphemes of the following words.

a. befriended

b. televise

c. unpalatable

d. psychology

e. morphemic

f. mistreatment

g. deactivation

h. terrorized

i. uncivilized

j. endearment

2. Consider nonpalatalized and palatalized consonants in the following data.

Nonpalatalized                  Palatalized

hit me    [hɪt mi]             hit you    [hɪʧ ju]

lead him  [lid hɪm]            lead you   [liʤ ju]

pass us   [pæs ʌs]            pass you  [pæʃ ju]

lose them [luz ðɛm]            lose you   [luʒ ju]

Formulate the rule that specifies when /t/, /d/, /s/, and /z/ become palatalized as

[ʧ], [ʤ], [ʃ], and [ʒ]. Restate the rule using feature notations. Does the formal    statement reveal the generalizations?

3. Are these minimal pairs?

doze - those              dare - their               udder - other

eider - either              star[t]ed - star[ɾ]ed      den - din

fair - fire                  caught - court            dearth -death

4. Mark intonation of the open-choice alternative question.

Would you like a paper or magazine?  "something to read?"

5. Say the meanings of the questions when they have these rising intonations.

1. Where will I work? I haven't thought of that yet.

2. What are you doing?

6. In the following list of words, indicate the possible phonological processes for

/t/ targets together with the phonetic transcription; dentalization, preglottalization,

glottal stop replacement, deletion, flapping, aspiration, etc.

a. mentality

b. scientist

c. betting

d. attest

e. trustable

f. don’t think

g. battle

h. tomato

i. tentative

7. Transcribe the following, focusing on alveolar assimilation and nasals.

a. bad penny

b. fried banana

c. good boy

d. red kite

e. front gate

f. white cross

g. fat man

h. bad girl

i. hot potato

j. keep him here [kipɪmɪɚ]

k. I can go [I kæn go]  [kən go]  [kəŋ go]  [kŋ go]

l. pen-pal

m. home free

n. gun boat

o. green thumb

p. in Greece

q. win more

8. Find out the words that creat ambisyllabic consonants and give the tree diagrams.

broccoli,  carpenter,  separate,  reference,  minaret,  cabinet,  finally,  miracle,

veteran

9. Consider the following:

Short V + CC            Long V/diph. + C             Long V/diph. + CC

(a) pimp                  (b) wipe                      (c) mind  But *[maɪmb]

lint                       light                          grind       *[maɪŋg]

sink                          bike       *[graɪmb]

weep      *[graɪŋg]

seed

beak

While certain combinations are possible, certain others (in (c)) are not allowed.

State the generalization.

10. Circle the words that have both [ʌ] and [ə].

undone, luckily, abundance, Monday, rushing, redundant, trouble, Paris, plaza,

suspend, crumble, sudden, grovel, rupture, jungle, stutter, comma, vodka,

Sarah, oven, enough, plunge

11. Circle the words that have both [ʌ] and [ɚ].

mustard, award, wonderful, support, guarded, thunder, serpent, walker, tremor,

barley, harbor, rubber, custard, under, others, usher, flutter, runner, dumpster,

customer

22. θ-Theory

θ-criterion: Each argument bears one and only one θ-role, and each

θ-role is assigned to one and only one argument―overt anaphors

(reflexive pronoun, NP-t), pronominals(I, you, we, he, PRO,,,),

lexical NP, wh-t, clause.

>> θ-role is assigned to NP(argument) by a verb and preposition

a. John [VP [V loves] Mary].

↑ ↑    |       |      ↑ ↑

indirectly      directly

θ-marking     θ-marking

external argument         internal argument

b. [NP e] was admired John by Mary

c. [NP e] seems [S John to [VP be intelligent]]

d. John believes [S Bill to be sick]

e. [S Johni seems [S ti to be considered [S ti to be intelligent]]]

↑            |↑                     |

+case         -case                -case

-θ-role       -θ-role              +θ-role

f. There seems to be some reasons

g. It is certain that John will win.

h. They took advantage of John.

i. Advantage was taken of John.

j. [NP  ] was killed John by Fred. (DS)

|     ↑   |   ↑

patient θ-role     agent θ-role

John was killed  t  by Fred. (SS)

⇑              |

inherited θ-role

k. [S John {was believed, seems} [S t' to have been killed t ]]  (SS)

-θ                           -θ                    +θ

※  a. [NP [NP e] [N'[N destruction] [NP the city]]]

|             ↑

+θ

b. destruction of the city  → of-insertion for case assignment

c. the city's destruction  → movement for case assignment, POSS-insertion

'the city' has a θ-role inherited from the base position

♧ θ-role cannot be assigned to the subject position in passive and raising             structure, in which the NP has an inherited θ-role that assigned in D-structure

23. Chain Constraint: A chain must have only one θ-role and only one case.

a.  John seems [ t to be in good health]  (John,   t)

+case    -case

-θ-role  +θ-role

b. *John seems [ t is in good health]  (John,   t)   ⇒ case-conflict

+case     +case

-θ-role   +θ-role

의미론, 화용론(Semantics & Pragmatics)

1. 성분분석(componential analysis):

- 한 단어의 의미를 그 단어를 구성하고 있는 의미성분(semantic component)으로 규정

하는 것.

- 성분분석에 의해 주어진 단어의 의미성분들은 그 단어의 상위어들이며 이것은 단어의       의미를 구성하는 의미장(semantic field)을 형성한다.

animal

human                   nonhuman

male                 female

adult        child      adult        child

|            |          |           |

man         boy       woman      girl

- 하의어는 상위어를 의미적으로 함의한다.

He is a man은 He is male을 의미적으로 함의한다.(전자가 T이면 후자도 T다)

- 반의어(antonym)인 boy-girl은 단 하나의 의미성분에서만 대조된다.

boy가 woman과 반의어(antonym)관계가 되지 못하는 것은 둘 이상의 의미성분이

대조되기 때문.

2. 의미자질(semantic feature)

man: [HUMAN], [ADULT], [MALE]...

mare: [NONHUMAN], [ADULT], [FEMALE], [HORSE]...

변별자질(distinctive feature)

man:  [+HUMAN], [+ADULT], [+MALE]

mare: [-HUMAN], [+ADULT], [-MALE]

⇓

각 단어의 의미를 나타내는 의미적 구성성분(semantic components)

- Semantic Components

spinster: [-male], [+human], [+adult], [-married]

bachelor: [+male], [+human], [+adult], [-married]

wife: [-male], [+human], [+adult], [+married]

husband: [+male], [+human], [+adult], [+married]

3. Declaratives vs. Non-declaratives

- Declaratives are typically used for giving information.

Interrogatives are typically used for requesting information.

Imperatives for requesting action.

1. I would be grateful if you could tell me the time.

2. I insist that you stay here.

3. Did you know they've just announced on the news that the Prime

Minister has resigned?

4. How many times have I told you not to do that?

5. Consider the fact that Rubenstein was a Zionist.

6. Tell me whether I'm right or not.

A: How big is the moon?

B: Not as big as the earth.

A: How big is the earth?

B: Big enough.

A: How big is big enough?

B: Stop asking questions and eat your cereal.

A: Could you pass the milk and sugar?

B: I told you not to ask questions: now get on with your breakfast.

4. Antonym

Two-dimensional antonym: 상보적(complementary)이면서 모순(contradictory)의 관계

alive-dead,    present-absent,   awake-asleep

Three-dimensional antonym:

solid-liquid-gas

- The pair alive and dead have senses which are not a matter of degree. These       are mutually exclusive opposites or complementary senses. Complementaries         may have only two words in the set, like boy and girl. or they may be              multiple, like solid, liquid, and gas, when they denote the only three states of       matter in the set.

Gradable antonym:

big-small,      hot-cold,      happy-sad,     tall-short,    fast-slow

Gradable antonyms are typically opposites near the ends of a scale, such as

hot and cold. Their scale is the temperature scale. Antonym pair cool and warm

take up intermediate positions between hot and cold. When we look at the

temperature scale on which cold, cool, warm and hot indicate ranges of

temperatures, we find that the scale is not precise.

Each range has fuzzy edges so that we can't be sure where hot finishes and

warm takes over. The range also depends on what is being talked about.

A hot day has a different temperature range from a hot drink.

(1)  a. My teacher is a bachelor.

b. My teacher is a spinster.

(2)  a. My teacher is tall.

b. My teacher is short.

# In certain pairs of gradable antonyms, the one is marked and the other is            unmarked.

unmarked                             marked

"How high is the mountain?"         "How low is the mountain?"

"Ten thousand feet high"             "Ten thousand feet low"

"How tall are you?"                  "How short are you?"

"How fast is it?"                     "How slow is it?"

"How long is the train?"              "How short is the train?"

# relational opposites: Displaying symmetry in the meaning.

If X gives Y to Z, then Z receives Y from X. If X is Y's teacher, then Y is X's

pupil. Pairs of words ending in -er and -ee are usually relational opposites. If

Mary is Bill's employer, then Bill is Mary's employee.

give-receive        buy-sell          teacher-pupil

husband-wife       trainer-trainee

# reversives: One of a reversive pair describes the reverse process of the other.

fold-unfold            tie-untie              cover-uncover

enter-exit             entity-nonentity      likely-unlikely

cf) place-misplace

5. Lexical ambiguity(어휘적 중의성):

a. He went to the bank.

b. George gave Benjamin a plane for Christmas.

c. This will make you smart.(clever or burning sensation)

Structural ambiguity(구조적 중의성):

a. Washing machines can be dangerous.

b. He gave her lion meat.

c. He saw her drawing pencils.

d. The boy saw the man with a telescope.

Ambiguity of semantic scope

Every boy loves some girl.

→ a.  For each boy, there is a girl that he loves.

→ b.  There is a certain girl that every boy loves.

cf) The chicken is ready to eat.

We are ready to eat the chicken.

6. Vagueness(모호성)

a.  I saw her duck. (중의성)

b.  She has good legs. (모호성)-- She has healthy legs. She has beautiful legs.

She has legs which function well.

c.  There are four large bulls in that field.(warning, statement, boast, threat)

d.  John's book ( ? )

- Four types of vagueness

a. referential vagueness: city, town

b. indeterminacy of meaning:  John's book, John's train

c. lack of specification: neighbour which is unspecified for sex, race, or age

cf. Johnny killed a bird today, and so did Susie.(unspecified intension)

d. disjunction in the specification of the meaning of an item: or

The applicants for the job either had a first-class degree or some teaching

experience.

7. 함의(entailment)

If     S1         S2 ,  then S1 entails S2.

T    →    T

F     ←    F

1. Mary sings arias beautifully.   Mary sings arias.

2. John does not eat vegetables.   John does not eat broccoli.

3. John was not present at the reception.   John was absent from the reception.

4. John bought a fake leather jacket.   John bought a leather jacket.

5. John met with some of the delegates.

John didn't meet with all of the delegates.

cf) (a) John regretted telling a lie.      (b) John told a lie.

→ (a) presupposes (b).

8. 진리조건적 의미론(truth conditional semantics):

반드시 참이 되는 조건과 상황이 있어야 하며 서술문(declaratives)에만 적용된다.

의문문(interrogatives), 명령문(imperatives), 수행발화 등의 의미는 설명할 수 없다.

John loves Mary.

→  S means that P = Necessarily S is true if and only if P

Snow is white is true if and only if snow is white.

John loves Mary: If there exists John and Mary and  John loves Mary,

then the sentence John loves Mary is true.

(1) a. John regretted that Mary had failed.

b. John didn't regret that Mary had failed.

c. Mary had failed.

(2) a. Sue realized that Bill had been unfaithful to his wife.

b. Sue didn't realize that Bill had been unfaithful to his wife.

c. Bill had been unfaithful to his wife.

(3) *John regretted that Mary had failed but she hadn't.

*Sue realized that Bill had been unfaithful to his wife, though he had

in fact never been unfaithful.

9. 화행의미론(speech act semantics):

참과 거짓의 진리값(truth value)으로 문장을 설명할 수 없다.

행위를 수반하는 발화가 나올 수 있다(약속, 확신, 동의 등을 수반하는 발화).

a.  I promise you that I'll be there.

b.  I bet you she'll fall over.

c.  I agree that I was wrong.

d.  I suggest that he is innocent.

e. There are four large bulls in that field. → warning, statement, boast, threat

⇒ These sentences follow felicity condition, appropriacy condition

# appropriacy condition

James will be at the party tonight. entails There is an individual called James

and There will be a party tonight, but how can we do this when the

appropriacy conditions differ according to the act performed? (warning, boast)

# performative utterances

I promise to go is not a description of a promise but, subject to the

satisfaction of the appropriacy condition, will itself constitute a promise

when it is uttered.

⇒ performative verbs: assert, promise, agree, bet, warn, accuse, testify,

suggest, announce, condemn, acknowledge, hereby(adv)

10. connotation vs. denotation

connotation(sense, intension(암시, 내포)): the concept of meaning, the set of

associations that a word's use can evoke; winter could be used for the

season stretching from December to March even if it's not cold or doesn't

have snow.

denotation(reference, extension(지시, 외연, 표상)): the meaning of a word or

phrase with the entities to which it refers; the denotation of the word

winter corresponds to the season between autumn and spring(regardless

of whether it is cold and unpleasant).

phrase                        extension            intension

Prime Minister of the UK       John Major         leader of the governing party

Capital of New Zealand         Wellington          city containing the seat of

government

11. Synonym: Multiple forms have one meaning.

extinguish, quench, put out → cause to cease of fire

> Which of the following words or expressions appear to have the same or very

similar meanings; list them in pairs of letters:

a.  effluent                   h.  the day after today

b.  knock over                i.  endure

c.  sympathize                j.  build up

d.  boycott                   k.  put up with

e.  outflow                   l.  tomorrow

f.  construct                 m.  take a calculated guess at

g.  show sympathy           n.  estimate

12. Synonym and entailment

If car and automobile are synonyms, then it follows from the fact that I am

driving a car then I am driving an automobile, that is, if one is true then the

other will be true and vice versa. The relationship where it one sentence is

true then the other is true, is termed entailment.

> In the following examples, what the first sentence expresses entails what the

second expresses. Does the second sentence also entail the first?

a. Evelyn won the race.  The race was won by Evelyn.

b. Greg has hit the ball too hard.  Greg has struck the ball too hard.

c. My socks are both scarlet.  My socks are both red.

d. I bought some ripe tomatoes.  I purchased some ripe tomatoes.

e. My dog is bigger than your dog.  Your dog is smaller than my dog.

f. Her dad likes me a lot.  Her father likes me a lot.

g. This pencil belongs to Roger.  Roger owns this pencil.

h. Ken almost shot his foot.  Ken nearly shot his foot.

i. My neighbour owns a pistol.  My neighbour owns a firearm.

13. Polysemy: One form has multiple related meanings.

column → pillar,  marchers in narrow file,  long thin section of news

hook →  1. a piece of material, usually metal, curved or bent and used to                         suspend, catch, hold, or pull something

2. short for fish-hook

3. a trap or snare

4. something resembling a hook in design or use

5. a sharp bend or angle in a geological formation

6. a sharply curved spit of lane

7. boxing: a short swinging blow delivered from the side with the                      elbow bent

8. Cricket: a shot in which the ball is hit square on the leg side                        with the bat held horizontally

9. Golf: a shot that causes the ball to go to the player's left

10. Surfing: the top of a breaking wave, etc.

# Homonym: Similar form with same sound has unrelated meanings.

a. soul  → spirit,      sole  → kind of fish

b. sight/site,  led/lead(past verb of lead / a kind of metal)

c. bank →  a financial institution,  a small cliff at the edge of a river

d. pen  →  a writing instrument,  a small cage

e. The ship was listing badly.

We are listing the requirements for the course.

f. The dog tried to lap the water.

The cat sat in my lap.

g. The dog had no bark.

Don't remove the bark from the tree.

(1) homographs:

a. lexemes of the same syntactic category, and with the same spelling:

lap "circuit of a course"  /  lap "part of body when sitting down"

b. of different categories, but with the same spelling:

the verb keep  /  the noun keep

(2) homophones:

a. of the same category, but with different spelling:

the verbs ring and wring

b. of different categories, and with different spelling:

not / knot

14. Hypernym and Hyponym

Hypernym                 hyponym

child                     boy, girl

temperature                hot, cold

> Arrange the words in each group so that every word is a hyponym of the word

immediately before it.

a. mouse, rodent, mammal

b. house, building, bungalow, structure

c. run, jog, move

d. pistol, weapon, firearm, revolver

e. person, uncle, relative

f. take, steal, pilfer

15. Hyponymy and Entailment

Does the first sentence entail the second? If it does, is this due to hyponymy

or not?

a. All dogs have fleas.  My dog has fleas.

b. Bob killed Charles.  Charles is not alive.

c. The bus is late.  The bus is very late.

d. Alan has planted marigolds.  Alan has planted flowers.

e. Tom took a pig.  Tom stole a pig.

f. Goldie ate the porridge. Someone ate the porridge.

g. I saw a human being.  I saw a person.

h. I am wearing black boots.  I am wearing black footwear.

i. A tall pygmy came in.  A tall person came in.

j.  I ran home last night. I went home last night.

k.  Bob killed Charles.  Bob murdered Charles.

l.  My socks are bright red.  My socks are red.

m. Jack swims.  Jack swims beautifully.

n. Jack doesn't swim beautifully.  Jack doesn't swim.

16. Selectional restrictions

The semantic components of a word are relevant not just to the meaning of the

individual word in its semantic field but also to the way the word functions with

other words in sentences. When we speak literally, the meanings of words

restrict the other words with which they will semantically fit. Such restrictions

are termed selectional restrictions.

a. *I ate a tennis racket for lunch.

b. *I met a pregnant bachelor on the subway.

c. *Philip was attacked by his electric typewriter.

a.  old women / young women

b.  little men / big men

c. *old comfort / *young comfort

d. *big sincerity / *little sincerity

17. Contradiction

Selectional restrictions are a factor in some sentences containing contradictions.

Some sentences in contradictions are always false.

Two sentences are contradictory if one entails the negation of the other:

Jack is alive. Jack is dead. (contradictory)

a. My male aunt bought a piano. (contradiction)

b. Babies are adults.

c. Charles is a bachelor.

Charles is married.

d. Circles are square.

# Tautology: A restricted number of sentences are always true regardless of the

circumstances.

e.g.) Circles are round.

A person who is single is not married.

18. Metaphor

A simple way to look at metaphor is to see it as a breaking down of the

normal literal selectional restrictions that the semantic components of words

have in a sentence. Metaphor violates the rule of semantic property.

e.g.) a. Freedom was at the helm of the ship of state.

b. When to  the sessions of sweet silent thought

I summon up remembrance of things past.  --Shakespeare

c. Walls have ears.

d. Our doubts are traitors.

e. Time is money. --'save time', 'waste time', 'manage time',

'back in time', 'borrowed time', 'ravages of time',

'sands of time'

f. Eat your heart out. (비교가 안 된다)

g. He ate his hat. (I'll eat my hat.) (장담하다)

- Idiomatic phrases

Some phrases, as metaphors, are repeated so often that they become fixtures       in the language. Idioms  can break the rules on combining semantic properties.

sell down the river (홀대하다, 배신하다)

rake over the coals (야단치다)

drop the ball (실수로 망치다)

let their hair down (느긋하게 즐기다, 솔직하게 말하다, 머리를 풀어 늘어뜨리다)

put his foot in his mouth (실언을 하다)

throw her weight around (이래라저래라하다)

snap out of it (기운내다 (속: 중지하라)

cut it out (귀찮다!, 그만 둬! (자르다))

hit it off (~와 죽이 맞다)

get it off (터놓고 얘기하다)

bite your tongue (이를 악물고 참다)

give a piece of your mind (불편한 심기를 드러내다)

-  a. She put her foot in her mouth.

b. She put her bracelet in her drawer.

- Idioms often lead to humor:

A: What did the doctor tell the vegetarian about his surgically implanted heart           valve from a pig?

B: That it was okay as long as he didn't "eat his heart out."

19. Simile

Using as or like creates a simile.

e.g.)  a. The girl is very cute, like a pet.

b. I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and

hills... --Wordsworth

20. metonymy

a. from the cradle to the grave (from childhood to death)

b. grey hairs(old age or old men)

c. He pledged his loyalty to the throne.(king)

d. He drank the cup.(alcohol)

e. The kettle boils.(water in the kettle)

f. head and heart(intellect and affection)

21. Conversational Implicature

Grice's theory of implicature

Grice's theory, in which he develops the concept of implicature, is essentially a theory about how people use language. These arise from basic and rational considerations and may be formulated as guidelines for the efficient and effective use of language in conversation to further co-operative ends. Grice identifies as guidelines of this sort four basic maxims of conversation or general principles underlying the efficient co-operative use of language, which jointly express a general co-operative principle.

The co-operative principle(대화가 진행될 때 대화의 방향이나 목적에 요구되는 만큼 기여해야 한다)

make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by      the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.

1. The maxim of Quality

try to make your contribution one that is true, speifically:

(i)  do not say what you believe to be fales

(ii) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence

2. The maxim of Quantity

(i)  make your contribution as informative as is required for the current

purposes of the exchange

(ii) do not make your contribution more informative than is required

3. The maxim of Relevance

make your contributions relevant

4. The maxim of Manner

be perspicuous, and specifically:

(i)   avoid obscurity

(ii)  avoid ambiguity

(iii)  be brief

(iv)  be orderly

Standard implicature(generalized implicature)

1. John has two PhDs.

+> I believe he has, and have adequate evidence that he has.

2. Nigel has only fourteen children.

The flag is only white.

3. Pass the salt.     +> Pass the salt now.

A: Can you tell me the time?

B: Well, the milkman has come.

A: Where's Bill?

B: There's a yellow VW outside Sue's house.

4.  Open the door.

♠ a. I walked into a house.

b. The house was not my house.

→ The sentence a implicates the sentence b

Floutings(exploitations)

1. - A: What if the USSR blockades the Gulf and all the oil?

B: Oh come now, Britain rules the seas!

- Queen Victoria was made of iron.

2. - War is war.

- If he does it, he does it.

3. A: I do think Mrs Jenkins is an old windbag, don't you?

B: Huh, lovely weather for March, isn't it?

4. Miss Singer produced a series of sounds corresponding closely to the score

of an aria from Rigoletto.

→ Miss Singer sang an aria from Rigoletto.

>>Context: A: What on earth has happened to the roast beef?

B: The dog is looking very happy.

a. The dog is looking very happy.

b. Perhaps the dog has eaten the roast beef.

(a는 b를 함축)

Quiz:  Maxims of conversation:

a. You are the cream in my coffee.

b. The police came in and everyone swallowed their cigarettes.

c. Her eyes danced with pleasure happily.

d. England is a sinking ship.

22. Speech Act Theory(performing actions in uttering a sentence)

(i) locutionary act(발화행위, 언표적 행위): the utterance of a sentence with

determinate sense and reference

(ii) illocutionary act(발화수반행위, 언표내적 행위): the making of a statement,

offer, promise, etc. in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the

conventional force associated with it (or with its explicit

performative paraphrase)

(iii) perlocutionary act(발화효과행위, 언향적 행위): the bringing about of effects

on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such

effects being special to the circumstances of utterance

a. I'll turn your light off.

b. Shoot her!

> One may say of this utterance that, in appropriate circumstances, it had

the illocutionary force of, variously, ordering, urging, advising the

addressee to shoot her; but the perlocutionary effect of persuading,

forcing, or frightening the addressee into shooting her.(Or, he might

have added, it might have the perlocutionary effect of frightening her.)

<Quiz>   Illocutionary act:

a. I declare the meeting open.(uttered to people present in the meeting)

b. I'll declare the meeting open soon.(uttered to people chatting before

the meeting begins)

c. Get well soon.(uttered to someone who is in the hospital)

23. Presupposition

Presupposition-triggers are italicized; the symbol >> stands for 'presupposes':

1. Definite descriptions

(1) John saw/didn't see the man with two heads

>> there exists a man with two heads

2. Factive verbs

(2) Martha regrets/doesn't regret drinking John's home brew

>> Martha drank John's home brew

(3) Frankenstein was/wasn't aware that Dracula was there

>> Dracula was there

(4) John realized/didn't realize that he was in debt.

>> John was in debt

(5) It was odd/it wasn't odd how proud he was

>> He was proud

(6) some further factive predicates: know, be sorry that, be proud that,

be indifferent that, be glad that, be sad that

3. Implicative verbs

(7) John managed/didn't manage to open the door

>> John tried to open the door

(8) John forgot/didn't forget to lock the door

>> John ought to have locked, or intended to lock the door

(9) some further implicative predicates:

X happened to V >> X didn't plan or intend to V

X avoided Ving >> X was expected to, or usually did, or ought to V

4. Change of state verbs

(10) John stopped/didn't stop beating his wife

>> John had been beating his wife

(11) Joan began/didn't begin to beat her husband

>> Joan hadn't been beating her husband

(12) Kissinger continued/didn't continue to rule the world

>> Kissinger had been ruling the world

(13) some further change of state verbs: start, finish, carry on, cease, take,

leave, enter, come, go, arrive,...

5. Iteratives

(14) The flying saucer came/didn't come again

>> The flying saucer came before

(15) You can't get gobstoppers anymore

>> You once could get gobstoppers

(16) further iteratives: another time, return, to come back, restore, repeat,

for the nth time

6. Verbs of judging

This kind of implication is, arguably, not really presuppositional at all; for,

unlike other presuppositions, the implications are not attributed to the

speaker, so much as to the subject of the verb of judging

(17) Agatha accused/didn't accuse Ian of plagiarism

>> (Agatha thinks) plagiarism is bad

(18) Ian criticized/didn't criticize Agatha for running away

>> (Ian thinks) Agatha ran away

7. Temporal clauses

(19) Before Strawson was even born, Frege noticed/didn't notice presuppositions

>> Strawson was born

(20) While Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics, the rest of social science

was/wasn't asleep

>> Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics

(21) further temporal clause constructors: after, since, during, whenever, as

8. Cleft sentences

(22) It was/wasn't Henry that kissed Rosie  (cf. unclefted Henry kissed Rosie)

>> someone kissed Rosie

(23) What John lost/didn't lose was his wallet

>> John lost something

9. Implicit clefts with stressed constituents

(24) Linguistics was/wasn't invented by CHOMSKY!

>> someone invented linguistics

10. Comparisons and contrasts

Comparisons and contrasts may be marked by stress, by particles like too,

back, in return, or by comparative constructions:

(25) Adolph called Marianne a Valkyrie, and she complimented him

back/in return/too

>> to call someone(or at least Marianne) a Valkyrie is to compliment them

(26) Carol is/isn't a better linguist than Barbara

>> Barbara is a linguist

11. Non-restrictive relative clauses

(27) The Proto-Harrappans, who flourished 2800-2650 B.C., were/were not

great temple builders

>> The Proto-Harrappans flourished 2800-2650 B.C.

12. Counterfactual conditionals

(28) If Hannibal had only had twelve more elephants, the Romance languages

would/would not this day exist

>> Hannibal didn't have twelve more elephants

13. Questions

(29) Is there a professor of linguistics at MIT?

>> Either there is a professor of linguistics at MIT or there isn't

(30) Who is the professor of linguistics at MIT?

>> Someone is the professor of linguistics at MIT

※ >>? stans for 'putatively presupposes'

(31) Do/don't close the door

>>? the door is open

♧ if...then(certain particles like only, even, just are presupposition-triggers)

(32) If only Harry failed the exam, it must have been easy

>>? Harry failed the exam

(33) If even Harry didn't cheat, the exam must have been easy

>>? Harry is the most likely person to cheat

(34) If I just caught the train, it was because I ran

>>? I almost didn't catch the train

24. Defeasibility

(35) John doesn't know that Bill came

(36) I don't know that Bill came (presupposition defeasible)

(37) Bill came

(38) Sue cried before she finished her thesis.

(39) Sue died before she finished her thesis (presupposition defeasible)

(40) Sue finished her thesis

25. Presupposition and entailment

a. The chief constable arrested three men

b. There is a chief constable

c. The chief constable arrested two men

→ The sentence a presupposes b, and entails c.

d. The chief constable didn't arrest three men

→ The sentence d presupposes b, but doesn't entail c.

Presuppositions survive in other kinds of context in which entailment do not.

One such is modal contexts, i.e. embedding under modal operators like

possible, there's a chance that, etc.

e. It's possible that the chief constable arrested three men

→ The sentence e presupposes b, but doesn't entail c, because one cannot

logically infer from the mere possibility of a state of affairs that any part of

it is actual. The same behaviour occurs under deontic modalities like those

expressed by ought, should and the like.

f. The chief constable ought to have arrested three men.

cf)  a. The two thieves were caught again last night.

b. A thief was caught last night.

c. The two thieves had been caught before

→ a entails b, and presupposes c.

d. If the two thieves were caught again last night, P.C. Katch will get an

honourable mention

→ d presupposes c, but doesn't entail b.

26. Deixis

The single most obvious way in which the relationship between language and

context is reflected in the structures of languages themselves, is through the

phenomenon of deixis. The term is borrowed from the Greek word for pointing

or indicating, and has as prototypical or focal exemplars the use of

demonstratives, first and second person pronouns, tense, specific time and place

adverbs like now and here, and a variety of other grammatical features tied

directly to the circumstances of utterance.

Deixis concerns the ways in which languages encode or grammaticalize features

of the context of utterance or speech event, and thus also concerns way in which

the interpretation of utterances depends on the analysis of that context of

utterance. Thus the pronoun this does not name or refer to any particular entity

on all occasions of use; rather it is a variable or place-holder for some particular

entity given by the context.

a. I'll be back in an hour.

b. Listen, I'm not disagreeing with you but with you, and not about this but

about this

27. Philosophical deixis

a. Letizia de Ramolino was the mother of Napoleon

→ The semantic content of the sentence (a) will amount to a specification of the

circumstances under which it would be true, namely that the individual known

as Letizia de Ramolino was in fact identical to the individual who was the

mother of Napoleon. The truth of (a) in no way depends on who says it, but

simply on the facts of history.

b. I am the mother of Napoleon.

→ We cannot assess the truth of this sentence without taking into account who

the speaker is; for (b) is true just in case the person uttering the sentence

is indeed identical to the individual who is the mother of Napoleon, and false

otherwise.

c. You are the mother of Napoleon

d. This is an eighteenth-century man-trap

e. Mary is in love with that fellow over there

f. It is now 12:15.

28. Descriptive deixis

The traditional categories of deixis are person, place, and time. Person deixis

concerns the encoding of the role of participants in the speech event in which

the utterance in question is delivered. Place deixis concerns the encoding of

spatial locations relative to the location of the participants in the speech event.

Time deixis concerns the encoding of temporal points and spans relative to the

time at which an utterance was spoken.

# Discourse deixis has to do with the encoding of reference to portions of the        unfolding discourse in which the utterance is located.

a. Puff puff puff: that is what it sounded like

b. This is what phoneticians call creaky voice

1. Person deixis

There are two first person 'plural' pronouns, corresponding to 'we-inclusive-

of-addressee' and 'we-exclusive-of-addressee'. This distinction is not

manifested in English directly, but it is perhaps indirectly: for the contraction

from let us to let's only seems felicitous if the us is understood inclusively.

a. Let's go to the cinema

b. ?Let's go to see you tomorrow

# Kinship terms with vocatives

a. Henry is my uncle. Henry is my cousin.

b. Hello, Uncle!   *Hello, Cousin!

# Vocatives can be divided into calls(summonses) and addresses.

a. Hey you, you just scratched my car with your frisbee

b. The truth is, Madam, nothing is as good nowadays

2. Time deixis: deictic time adverbs like now, then, soon, today, tomorrow,

yesterday, recently,...

a. Pull the trigger now! (gestural use)

b. I'm now working on a PhD (interminable period)

c. Tomorrow is Wednesday (Referent refers to the entire span itself)

d. Dennis hit Murphy with a baseball bat yesterday

(Referent refers to a point within the relevant span)

e. I'll see you on Thursday. → Note that the deictic words yesterday, today

and tomorrow pre-empt the calendrical or absolute ways of referring to

the relevant days. Thus the following, said on Thursday, can only be

referring to next Thursday(or perhaps some more remote Thursday),

otherwise the speaker should have said today.

3. Place deixis: Place or space deixis concerns the specification of locations

relative to anchorage points in the speech event.

a. It's two hundred yards away.

b. Kabul is four hundred miles West of here.

→ In either case it is likely that units of measurement, or descriptions of

direction and location, will have to be used, and in that case place deixis

comes to interact in complex ways with the non-deictic organization of

space.

c. I'm writing to say I'm having a marvellous time here.

d. Bring that here and take this there.

→ The adverbs here and there are often thought of as simple contrasts on

a proximal/distal dimension, stretching away from the speaker's location.

But this is only sometimes so, for although there basically means 'distal

from speaker's location at CT', it can also be used to mean 'proximal

to addressee at RT'. (CT:coding time,  RT: receiving time)

e. How are things there?

29. Gestural Usage

a. This one's genuine, but this one is a fake.

b. You, you, but not you, are dismissed

c. This finger hurts

d. Not that one, idiot, that one.

e. Move it from there to there

f. He's not the Duke, he is. He's the butler.

30. Symbolic Usage

a. This city is really beautiful

b. Let's go now rather than tomorrow

c. That's a beautiful view

d. Hello, is Harry there?

e. We can't afford a holiday this year.

31. Scalar Implicatures

Given any scale of the form <e1, e2, e3,...en>, if a speaker asserts A(e2),

then he implicates ~A(e1), if he asserts A(e3), then he implicates ~A(e2)

and ~A(e1), and in general, if he asserts A(en), then he implicates ~(A(en-1)),

~(A(en-2) and so on, up to ~(A(e1))

a. All of the boys went to the party

b. Some of the boys went to the party.

c. Not all the boys went to the party.

→ 'all' entails 'some', and 'some' entails or implicates 'not all'

Strong                 Weak

<all, most, many, some, few>

<and, or>

<n, ...5, 4, 3, 2, 1>

<excellent, good>

<hot, warm>

<always, often, sometimes>

<succeed in Ving, try to V, want to V>

<necessarily p, p, possibly p>

<certain that p, probable that p, possible that p>

<must, should, may>

<cold, cool>

<love, like>

<none, not all>

<hot, warm>

32. Clausal implicatures

(a) stronger form        (b) weaker form       (c) implicatures of (b)

p and q                   p or q                 {Pp, P ~p, Pq, P ~q}

since p, q                 if p then q             {Pp, P ~p, Pq, P ~q}

a knows p                 a believes p            {Pp, P ~p}

a realized p               a thought p            {Pp, P ~p}

a revealed p               a said p                {Pp, P ~p}

necessarily p              possibly p              {Pp, P ~p}

'P means possible'

a. I believe John is away. (weaker form)

b. I know John is away. (stronger form)

→'believe' of the sentence (a) implicates both negative and positive property          of the complement 'John is away'. But 'know' of (b) implicates only the fact          that the complement is true.

33. Deductive inference vs Inductive inference

Deductive or logical inferences are not defeasible.

a. If Socrates is a man, he is mortal.

b. Socrates is a man.

c. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.(not defeasible)

⇒ If a and b are true, c is true.

Inductive inference are defeasible.

a. I have dug up 1001 carrots.

b. Every one of the 1001 carrots is orange.

c. Therefore, all carrots are orange.(defeasible)

⇒ Although a and b are true, c cannot be true.

※ In this respect implicatures are more like inductive inferences than they

are like deductive ones, for implicatures are inferences easily defeasible.

34. Logical truth vs. Analytic truth

- Logical truth--in terms of valid inference

a. Bill knows that he has cancer.

b. Bill has cancer.

→ If a is true, and then b is true.

- Analytic truth--in terms of truth condition

1. a. Bill is a bachelor.

b. Bill has never been married.

2. Contradiction: a. John murdered Mary

b. John didn't kill Mary

→ If a is true, and then b is false.

3. Ambiguity: The helicopter landed on the bank.

→ If the two ambiguous conditions of bank is satisfied,

and then the sentence is true.

35. Thematic Roles

Agent is the instigator of the action

Theme is the entity affected by the action or state.

The action originates source.

Instrument is the means used to accomplish the action.

Experiencer receives sensory input and is the entity experiencing the               psychological state.

(Verbs like awaken or frighten have a feature "affects mental state" so that one      of its arguments takes on the thematic role of experiencer.)

1. The boy rolled a red ball.

agent          theme

2. The boy threw the red ball to the girl.

agent           theme         goal

3. Prof. Snape awakened Harry Potter with his wand.

source               experiencer      instrument

4. Mary bought the book from John.

agent        theme        source

5. The dog bit the stick.

agent        theme

The stick was bitten by the dog.

theme                   agent

6. The trainer gave the dog a treat.

agent            goal    theme

The trainer gave a treat to the dog.

theme     goal

# In these three sentences, "the door" is the theme, the object that is opened.

a. The boy opened the door with the key.

b. The key opened the door.

c. The door opened.

7. His mother sent David a letter

agent              goal     theme(patient)

8. David smelled the freshly baked bread

experiencer                patient

9. We put the cheese in the fridge

agent     theme(patient)      goal

10. Frank threw himself  onto the sofa

agent             theme           goal

11. Greg comes from Wales

theme(topic)       source

12. David smashed the window.

agent                 patient

13. The window was smashed by David.

patient                            agent

14. A brick smashed th window.

instrument              patient

15. David used a brick to smash the window.

agent         instrument                patient

# There is no one-to-one relationship between grammatical function and thematic roles.

1. devour:  NP(agent), NP(patient)

[The crocodile] devoured [a doughnut].

2. smile: NP(agent)

[Henry] smiled.

3. investigate: NP(agent), NP(patient)

[The police] investigated [the allegation].

4. give: NP(agent), NP(benefactive), NP(theme)

[Sara] gave [Pete] [a parcel].

5. bet: NP(agent), NP(goal), NP(patient), clause, proposition

[Mary] bet [Brian] [a pound] [that he would lose the game of squash].

36. Telic vs. Atelic

telic: 완료를 내포

atelic: 미완료를 내포, 동작의 끝점(endpoint)이 없음.

telic	atelic
I've painted my bedroom. (finished)	I've been painting my bedroom. (unfinished)
My father has repaired his old tractor. (결과, finished)	My father has been repairing his old tractor. (unfinished)
They built the barn. They reached the summit.	The room was sunny. The choir sang.
They built the barn in two days. (duration) They reached the summit in half an hour.(delay) ?They built the barn for two days. ?They reached the summit for half an hour. ('for': telic event에서 사용 못함)	The room was sunny for an hour. (duration) ?The room was sunny in an hour. ('in': atelic event에서 사용 못함) cf) 'He swam in the pool': atelic (endpoint가 없음)
telic event with future tense: They will build the barn in two days. (ambiguous)	atelic event with future tense: The room will be sunny in an hour. (unambiguous)
John walked to the park.	John walked in the park.

37. Aspectual class of verbs

동사를 시작, 지속, 종결 등과 같은 시간적 속성으로 분류

state(상태): know, believe, have, desire, love

activity(동작): run, walk, swim, push a cart, drive a car

accomplishment(완성): paint a picture, make a chair, deliver a sermon,

draw a circle, recover from illness

achievement(달성): recognize, find, spot, lose, reach, die

	stative 정태적	telic 종결적	punctual 순간적	homogeneity 동질성
상태	+	-	-	+
동작	-	-	-	+
완성	-	+	-	-
달성	-	+	+	-

		start point	telic (end point)	duration
statives		×	×	O
dynamics	accomplishment	O	O	O
	achievements	O	O	×
	activities	O	×	O

- Verbs are classified into four kinds, differing according to how the denoted states

or actions are distributed in time:

1. almost instantaneous switches between states: notice a mistake

2. simple existence of a state: hate hypocrisy

3. ongoing actions: ring handbells

4. goal-directed actions that culminate: cook dinner

- Vendler's four kinds of situation types:

1. She got her ankle sprained. (achievement)

-> The accident is a sudden transition from ankle being okay to ankle being        sprained. In a transition of this kind - an achievement - there is not usually        enough time to avoid the outcome by stopping partway through. This shows         in the unacceptability of *She stopped getting her ankle sprained.

2. She had a sprained ankle. (state) - *She was having a sprained ankle.

3. She had physiotherapy. (activity) - She was having physiotherapy.

4. She got better. (accomplishment)

-> There is nothing linguistically strange about She stopped getting better.          The culmination is a state of good health, but getting better also encodes a         healing process that leads up to it, and English allows us to talk of stopping        during that process, before the end result has been reached.

So the achievement meaning of get is different from the accomplishment             meaning of it.

- Habitual interpretations of present tense clauses with nowadays:

1. She loves music nowadays. (state)

2. He drinks decaffeinated coffee nowadays. (activity)

3. Little Maurice brushes his teeth by himself nowadays. (accomplishment)

4. The clown pops the balloon nowadays. (achievement)